Skіlki rokіv іsnuvalа Byzantіyska іmperіya. Fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire. Map of the Byzantine Empire
We do not know Byzantium in the early novizantine history with its praetors, prefects, patricians and provinces, but we are becoming more and more famous in the world, as emperors will acquire beards, consuls will turn into a patisserie.
Prehistory
The people of Byzantium will not be understood without turning until the epochs of the III century, if in the Roman Empire there was a huge economic crisis that actually led to the collapse of the state. At 284, Diocletian came to power (as may be all the emperors of the III century, he was only a Roman officer of an ignorant campaign - his father was a slave) and came alive to decentralize power. Spopchatka, in 286 rotations, divided the empire into two parts, entrusted the management of Sunset to his friend Maximian Herculius, and left his own Skhid. Then, at 293 roci, in order to increase the stability of the management system and the security of the change of power, vin having run the system of the tetrarchy - chotyrichastkovy administration, as it was done by two senior emperors-serps and two young emperors-caesars. At the skin part of the empire, it was followed by a serp and Caesar (the skin s of such a bula had its own geographical zone of validity - for example, the serpen to Sunset controlled Italy and Spain, and Caesar Sunset - Galiya and Britain). After 20 years, the scythes were small to transfer power to the Caesars, so that you became sickles and took away b new Caesars. However, the system turned out to be lifeless, and after the birth of Diocletian and Maximian in the 305th century, the empire again sank into the era of hromada wars.
People of Byzantium
1. 312 r_k - battle on the Mulvіysky bridge
After the appointment of Diocletian and Maximian, the supreme power passed to the great Caesars - Galeria and Constantius Chlorine, they became sickles, and Caesars with them, in spite of the chivalry, were not recognized as the son of Constantia Kostyantin Maxentius The protests of resentment did not deprive the imperial ambitions and from 306 to 312 rіk alternately laid down a tactful alliance in order to oppose other contenders for power (for example, recognized as Caesar after the designation of Diocletian Flavius Pivnoch), then, mud over Maxentius at the battle on the Mulvian bridge across the river Tiber (nine at the borders of Rome) meant the declaration of the Western part of the Roman Empire under the rule of Kostyantin. Immediately of the empire, some kind of destination for the Galeries) Kostyantin ob'ednav Skhid and Zakhid.
The miniature near the center depicts the battle on the Mulvian bridge. Three homilies of Gregory the Theologian. 879-882 rocky
MS grec 510 /
The battle on the Mulvian Bridge near the Byzantine Svidomo was connected with the idea of the people of the Christian Empire. They took it, in a better way, the legend about the miraculous sign of the Cross, which Kostyantin waggled in the sky before the battle, - they tell about it (the truth, we know it in a different way) Eusebius of Caesarea(bl. 260-340) - Greek historian, author of the first church history. and lactation lactation(bl. 250-325) - a Latin writer, an apologist for Christianity, the author of the work "On the Death of the Persecutors", dedicated to the epoch of Diocletian., but in a different way, the fact that at about the same hour two edikti were seen edict- Normative act, decree. about religious freedom, yak legalized Christianity and recognized all religions with rights. I want to see edicts about religious freedom, not a little direct commendation to the fight against Maxentius (the first one was published by Emperor Galerius in 311, and the other was already published by the fierce 313 fate in Milan, Kostyantin at once from Litsin'shniaz), the legend on the inside The sight of independent political circles of Kostyantyn, like the first one, that sovereign centralization is impossible without consolidating the state, is in front of the sphere of culture.
Meanwhile, for Kostyantyn, Christianity was only one of the candidates for the role of consolidating religion. The Emperor himself had long been an adherent of the cult of the Impossible Son, and the hour of the yogo Christian baptism was the subject of scientific superechok.
2. 325 rk - I Ecumenical Council
At 325 roci Kostyantin, calling representatives of the local churches to the place of Nicaea. Nikea— Ninі Misto Iznіk near Pivnіchno-Zahіdnіy Turechchinі., to sing a super-chuckle between the Bishop of Alexandria Oleksandr and Ariyem, the presbyter of one of the Oleksandrian churches, about those who were created by God Jesus Christ Opponents of the Arians briefly summed up their vchennya like this: “It was [such an hour], if [Christ] was not.”. These elections have become the first Ecumenical Council - the collections of representatives of our commemorative churches, as they may have the right to formulate a vchennya, as then we will be recognized by all the omniscient churches. It is impossible to say for sure, the scalable bishops took the fate of the cathedral, the shards of this act were not spared. Tradition calls the number 318. Even if it wasn’t there, you can talk about the “all-glorious” character of the cathedral only with guards, the shards of all the episcopal chairs at the same time fell over 1500.. I universal cathedral - the key of the Etaps of the venalist of the Christianity of the Yak Impersko Religy: Yogo Zhidannya did not go to the temple, but in the izmraciye palack, having shouted the cathedral of Kostyantin I, but the billed of the gravity of the trademan is 20.
First Council of Nicaea. Fresco from the monastery of Stavropoleos. Bucharest, XVIII century
Wikimedia Commons
I Nicaea and the advancing after him I Constantinople (elections at 381 roci) councils condemned the Arianism, about the created nature of Christ and the inconsistency of the hypostases in the Trinity, and the Apollinarian, about the incompetence of the adoption of human nature by Christ, and formulated not the creation of the people eternal), and all three іpostasі - like mum one nature. The symbol of the faith is recognized as true, not forcing further doubts and discussions The words of the Nikeo-Tsargorod Symbol of faith about Christ, which were called out by the most blessed superchicks, in the words of the Janskian translation sound like this: Svіtla vіd Svіtla, God is true, like God is true, people, uncreated, one in essence Batkovi, Yakim all bisha..
No sooner had the day-to-day thought in Christianity not been judged by all the ages of the universal church, that imperial power, and the theological school had not been recognized by the Jews. The epoch of the Ecumenical Councils has begun - the epoch of the struggle of orthodoxy and heresy, which is self- and mutually significant. With this same belief, it could alternately be recognized either as Jessica or as a rightist - fallow in the political conjuncture (so it was in the 5th century), the same manifestation of the possibility and the need for the defense of orthodoxy and the condemnation of heresy for the help of the state it was already set to none.
3. 330 rіk - transferring the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople
Wanting Rome to be the cultural center of the empire forever, the tetrarchs took the places on the periphery as their capitals, for which it was more effective to strike outward attacks: Nіkomіdії Nicomidia- Nini Izmit (Turechchina)., Sirmiy Sirmy- Nini Sremska-Mitrovitsa (Serbia)., Milan and Trier. During the reign of Sunset, Kostyantyn I transferred his residence to Milan, then Sirmium, then Thessaloniki. Yogo supernik Lіtsіnіy tezh having changed the capital, ale in 324 rotsі, if between him and Kostyantin began a war, the ancient place of Byzantіy on the birch of the Bosporus, near Herodotus, became a strong point in Europe.
Sultan Mehmed II Conqueror and Zmіїna column. Miniature of Naqqash Osman from the manuscript "Khyuner-name" by Seyid Lokman. 1584-1588 rocky Wikimedia Commons
In the course of the oblogs of Byzantium, and then, during the preparations for the final battle of Chrysopol on the Asian birch, Kostyantin assessed the situation of Byzantium and, having defeated Licinia, immediately proceeding to the program for updating the place, especially taking the fate of the various cities. The city gradually took over the functions of the capital: a senate was founded in a new one, and rich Roman senatorial homelands were forcibly transported closer to the senate. Himself in Constantinople, for the sake of life, Kostyantin ordered the construction of his own tomb. Various marvels of the ancient world, for example, a bronze Serpent Column, created in the 5th century BC in honor of the victory over the Persians under Plataea, were brought up near the place. Battle for Plataea(479 p. BC) — one of the most important battles of the Greek-Persian wars, as a result of which the land forces of the Achaemenid Empire were still defeated..
The chronicler of the 6th century, John Malala, revealed that on January 11, 330, Emperor Kostyantyn appeared at the urochist ceremony of the consecration of the place in a diadem - a symbol of the power of the descended despots, which the Roman champions were unique in every way. The adoption of the political vector symbolically sank into the spacious relocated center of the empire from the approach of Skhid, which, with its devilry, celebrated the virishal infusion of the formation of the Byzantine culture: the transfer of the capital of the city, which the Kostyansk Greek center itself spoke, zoomed in on the character of the Greek mental map of Byzantium and ototozhnivsya with the strength of the empire.
4. 395 r_k - subdued the Roman Empire to Skhidna and Zakhidna
Regardless of those who in the 324th rotation of Kostyantyn, having changed Litsiniya, formally uniting the Empire and Zahid, the links between the parts were weak, and the cultural differences were growing. At the I Ecumenical Council, three more than ten bishops arrived from the Western provinces (with approximately 300 participants); the greater number of pribulikhs did not understand by ear the vital promo of Kostyantin, as if they had changed it into latin, and it was necessary to translate it into walnut.
Pivsilikvi. Flavius Odoacer on the obverse of a coin from Ravenna. 477 rіk Odoacer of images without an imperial diadem - with an uncovered head, with a hoof of hair and whiskers. Similar images are uncharacteristic for emperors and are considered "barbaric". Trustees of the British Museum
The remaining podіl became in 395 rotations, if the Emperor Theodosius I the Great, who for a few months before his death, became the one-man ruler of the Gathering and Sunset, dividing the state between his sons Arcadia (Skhid) and Honorius (Zakhid). Vtіm, formally Zahіd sche po'yazavsya zі Descent, and at the sunset of the Western Roman Empire, for example the 460s, the Byzantine Emperor Leo I on the Senate of Rome, having abandoned the unsuccessful attempt to place on the zakhіdniy throne of his established throne. In 476, the German barbarian-Naimanite Odoacer, having put the rest of the emperor of the Roman Empire, Romulus Augustulus, and saw the imperial insignia (symbols of power) to Constantinople. In this rank, with a look at the legitimacy of the government, parts of the empire were reunited anew: the emperor Zinon de jure, who ruled for the time being in Constantinople, becoming the one-person head of the entire empire, and Odoacer, who took the title of patrician, ruled the representative of Italy . However, the truth has never been seen on the real political map of the Mediterranean.
5. 451 r_k - Cathedral of Chalcedon
IV Ecumenical (Chalcedonian) Council, cries for the residual hardening of the belief about the instillation of Christ in a single hypostasis and two natures and a total condemnation of monophysitism Monophysitism(Greek μόνος - unity and φύσις - nature) - a vchennya about those that Christ did not thoroughly understand human nature, shards of yoga, divine nature, when instilled, replaced її or was angry with her. Opponents of monophysitis were called diophizites (Greek: δύο - two)., having called to a deep split, not repaired by the Christian church of the Donin. The central sovereign power continued to seize monophysites under the usurpers Vasilik in 475-476, and in the first half of the 6th century, under the emperors Anastasia I and Justinian I. Yogo is a conciliatory messenger, as if he took away the name "Enotikon", secured peace at the Skhodі, but brought about a 35-river split with Rome.The main support of monophysitivs was the skhіdnі provinces - Egypt, Birmenіya and Syria. In these regions, rebellions were regularly saved on religious soil and formed parallel to the Chalcedonian (so that the church of Chalcedon was recognized) an independent monophysitic hierarchy and the authorities of the church institutions, which step by step rose up in an independent, fundamentally and churches - Syro-Yakovitska. Residually, the problem lost relevance for Constantinople only in the 7th century, as the result of the Arab conquests of the monophysic provinces was traded in the empire.
Rozkvit early Byzantium
6. 537 r_k - completion of the life of the Church of St. Sophia under Justinian
Justinian I. Fragment of the mosaic of the church San Vitali in Ravenna. VI century
Wikimedia Commons
For Justinian I (527-565), the Byzantine Empire reached its highest level. Code of Public Law pіdsumovuvav rich development of Roman law. As a result of the military campaigns on the Sunset, the inter-empire was expanded, including all the Mediterranean - Pivnichnu Africa, Italy, part of Spain, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicily. One can talk about "Yustinianova Reconquist". Rome became a part of the empire again. Justinian ignited a wide life throughout the empire, and in 537 the construction of a new Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople was completed. According to the legend, the plan for the temple was shown especially by the emperor's angel at the bachelor's. There was no other event of such magnitude in Byzantium: a grandiose temple, which at the Byzantine ceremonial took away the name “Great Church”, becoming the center of the power of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.
The epoch of Justinian at once and residually rve z pagan minulim (529 the fate of the Athenian Academy Athens Academy - philosophical school in Athens, founded by Plato in the 380s BC. e.) that establishes a line of attack from antiquity. The middle culture stands out for itself as early Christian, attracting the reach of antiquity on all levels - from literature to architecture, but at the same time, you can see their religious (pogansk) world.
Vykhodets іz nіzіv, yak pragniv change the way of life of the empire, Justinian zustrіv nepriyattya from the side of the old aristocracy. The very goal, and not the special hatred of the historian to the emperor and victorious - an evil pamphlet on Justinian and the yogo team of Theodore.
7. 626 rіk - Avaro-Slovyansk oblog of Constantinople
On the reign of Iraclius (610-641), who was acclaimed in court panegyric literature as the new Hercules, the rest of the great political successes of early Byzantium fall. At the 626 roci Iraclius and Patriarch Sergius, who, having established the uninterrupted defense of the place, far away imagined the Avaro-Slovyansk oblogue of Constantinople (the words that exclaim the akathist of the Mother of God, justify themselves about this victory. In the words of the Yan language, the stench sounds like this: “The defense of the Voevod is possible, as the evil ones have been called, so we can recite Thy servants, the Mother of God, but if we can’t overcome the power, for all of us, for freedom, that cry to You: Rejoice, Narechen Narechen.”), and at the turn of the 20-30s of the 7th century during the Persian campaign against the Sassanids Sasanian Empire- a Persian state centered on the territory of the lower Iraq and Iran, which was founded in 224-651. buli in dovovani vtracheni kіlka rokіv doti provintsії Descent: Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Palestine. Near Jerusalem, in 630 turns, the Persians stole Chesny Khrest, on which the Savior died. At the hour of the urochist process, Irakliy especially brought in the Cross at the place and laid yoga at the temple of the Holy Sepulcher.
For Іraklії the rest is angry before the cultural development of the dark centuries, the scientific and philosophical neoplatonic tradition is going through, which goes without a middle in the antiquity: to Constantinople, on the imperial request, when you write, the representative of the remaining utsіlіloїy Oleksandrіy school in Oleksandrіy of antiquity
Plate with a cross with images of a cherub (levoruch) and the Byzantine emperor Іraklіy іz shahіnshah Sassanids Khosrov II. Valley of the Meuse, 1160-70s Wikimedia Commons
All these successes were built on the Arab bulk, as already after ten years they wiped out the Sassanids from the lands and once again traded away the provinces from Byzantium. Legends tell about those, like the prophet Mohammed, having propagated Iraq to accept Islam, prote in the cultural memory of the Muslim peoples of Iraq, having become a fighter from Islam, and not from the Persians. The epic poem of the 18th century “The Book of Heracles” is the oldest memorial of writing in Swahili about the wars (a spell of failure for Byzantium).
Dark Ages and Iconoclasm
8. 642 r_k - Arab conquest of Egypt
The first hvil of the Arab conquests in the Byzantine lands was trival in the spring of the year - from 634 to 642 rivers. As a result, Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Egypt were discovered in Byzantium. Having spent the old days of Antioch, Jerusalem and Oleksandriya Patriarchate, the Byzantine Church, in fact, has spent the universal character and became equal to the Patriarchate of Constantinople, which in the midst of the empire did not lose equal yoma for the status of church institutions.
In addition, having spent native territories, yak, they provided it with grain, the empire overcame a deep internal crisis. In the middle of the 7th century, there was a quick penny obigu and a fall of mist (as in Asia Minor, so in the Balkans, it was not the Arabs who threatened them, but the words) - the stench turned into either the villages or the middle forts. Constantinople became the only great city center, but the atmosphere around the city changed and ancient monuments brought there from the 4th century began to instill irrational fears in the townspeople.
A fragment of a papyrus leaf of the Coptic my chentsiv of Viktor and Psan. Fivi, Byzantine Egypt, approximately 580-640 years Translation of a fragment of a sheet of English language on the website of the Metropolitan Museum. The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Constantinople, having also gained access to papyrus, which was vibrating exclusively in Egypt, which caused the price of books to rise, and, as a result, the fall of light. A wealth of literary genres arose, having flourished earlier, the genre of history gave way to the prophethood - having spent the cultural connection with the past, the Byzantine people cooled down to their own history and lived with the constant thoughts of the world. The Arab conquests, which caused this evil of light, did not know in the current literature, a number of pods bring to us the monuments of the past epochs, but the new historical evidence only reflects the atmosphere of heat, and not the facts. The cultural decline has lasted for over a hundred years, the first signs of rebirth fall at the end of the VIII century.
9. 726/730 rіk Zgіdno with the historians-icon worshipers of the IX century, Leo III in 726 saw the edict of iconoclasm. However, there are doubts about the reliability of these reports: nayimovirnishe, at 726 roci, the Byzantine sorority began to think about the possibility of iconoclastic entrances, the first real ones are known until 730 roku.- Cob of iconoclastic super-cats
Holy Mokіy Amfіpolsky is the angel who beats the iconoclasts. Miniature from the Psalter of Theodore of Caesarea. 1066 rіk The British Library Board, Add MS 19352, f.94r
One of the manifestations of the cultural twilight of the other half of the 7th century was the turbulent growth of disordered practices of painting icons (they took, scraped and stuccoed the icons of saints). It called out to a part of the clerics, as if they were battling against the threat of turning to paganism. Emperor Leo III Іsaur (717-741) was dissatisfied with the creation of a new consolidating ideology, having created in 726/730 the first line of iconoclasts. Aleja nayzapeklіshi superchicks about icons fell on the reign of Kostyantyn V Kopronim (741-775). Vіn zdіysniv nebhіdnі vіyskovo-adminіstrаtivnі reforms, znachnіv posіlіv іn the role of profіyіynoїіimperаtskoїіїї ї (tagm) аnd successfully streaming the Bulgarian threat on the borders of the empire. The authority of both Kostyantin and Leva, who saw the Arabs on the walls of Constantinople in 717-718, was even higher, to that, if they were in 815, even after that, as at the VII Ecumenical Council, the icon-worshippers were confirmed (787), a new round war with the Bulgarians provoked a new political crisis, the imperial power turned to iconoclastic politics.
The super thing about icons gave birth to two hard lines of theological thinking. Although the belief of iconoclasts in the house is significantly higher, lower the belief of their opponents, it is indirectly possible to speak about those that the thought of the iconoclasts of Emperor Kostyantyn Kopronim and Patriarch John Gramatik of Constantinople (837-843) was not less traditionally Greek cії. Damascus and the head of the anti-iconoclast black opposition of Theodore the Studite. At the same time, the super river developed in the church-political area, the borders of the emperor, patriarch, clergy and bishopric were re-appointed.
10. 843 rіk - Urochistist Orthodoxy
In 843, under Empress Theodora and Patriarch Methodius, the dogma of icon veneration was still approved. Vono became possible for mutual deeds, for example, the posthumous forgiveness of the emperor-iconoclast Theophilus, whose widow and bula Theodora. The holy “Triumph of Orthodoxy”, won by Theodora from the tsієї nagoda, completed the era of the Ecumenical Councils and marked a new stage in the life of the Byzantine state of the church. In the Orthodox tradition of wines, the dons, and anathemas of the iconoclasts, who are called by name, can be heard during the first week of Great Lent. From that hour, iconoclasm, which became the rest of the Jews, condemned by the whole church, began to be mythologised in the memory of Byzantium.
The daughters of Empress Theodori begin to read the icons of Grandmother Feoktisti. Miniature from the Madrid Codex "Chronicles" of John Skylitzes. XII-XIII centuries Wikimedia Commons
As early as 787, at the 7th Ecumenical Council, the theory of the image was confirmed, for which, in the words of Basil the Great, “the honor given to the image is reworked from the prototype”, therefore, worship of the icon is not an idol service. Now, however, this theory has become the official veil of the church - the creation and worship of sacred images was not more than allowed, and the obov'yazkovo was placed in the obov'yazkovo the Christian. At this hour, an avalanche-like growth of artistic production begins, the iconic image of a Christian-Christian church with iconic decoration is formed for us, the victoria of icons is introduced into liturgical practice and changes the worship service.
In addition, the iconoclastic super-chka stimulated reading, the copying of that vchennya dzherel, up to some sort of contradictory sides were turned around in the jokes of arguments. The end of the cultural crisis is rich in why it is shaped by the philological work of preparing church cathedrals. A vinahid minuscule Minuscule- a sheet in small letters, which radically reduced and cheapened the production of books., perhaps, it was connected with the needs of the icon-shaping opposition, which was rooted in the minds of the “samvidavu”: the icon-shakers were small enough to copy texts and not small sums of money for the creation of expensive uncial Uncial, or majuscule,- Liszt in great letters. manuscripts.
Macedonian era
11. 863 rk - the cob of the Photian Schism
Between the Roman and the Hidden churches, step by step, dogmatic and liturgical differences were growing (let’s think about the Latin addition to the text of the Symbol of the words about the Holy Spirit’s march, not only the Old Man, but “and the Sina”, the so-called Filioque filioque- literally "i vіd Sina" (lat.).). The Patriarchate of Constantinople and the Pope of Rome fought for the spheres in a splash (we were in front of Bulgaria, Pivdenny Italy and Sicily). Voting of Charlemagne by the Emperor Sunset at 800 pm was a sensitive blow to the political ideology of Byzantium: the Byzantine emperor knew his rival in the Carolingians.
Miraculous salvation by the Foty of Constantinople for the assistance of the Holy Mother of God. Fresco from the Dormition Knyaginin Monastery. Volodymyr, born in 1648 Wikimedia Commons
The two opposing parties in the middle of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the so-called gnatiani (hospice of Patriarch Ignatius, born in 858) and fotiani (shelters of the star - not without scandal - the deputy of New Photius) joked pidtrimki in Rome. Pope Mikolay vykoravstav this situation for the approval of the authority of the papal throne and the expansion of its spheres of influence. In 863 roci vins, having signed the signatures of their envoys, they praised Photius, prote іmperator Mikhailo III respecting what was not enough for the patriarch's abode, and in 867 roci Photiy, having anathematized Pope Mikoli. In 869-870, a new cathedral near Constantinople (and until the recognition by Catholics of the VIII Ecumenical) threw off Photius and restored Ignatius. In the meantime, after the death of Ignaty Foty, for nine more years, he turned to the patriarchal throne (877-886).
Formally, reconciliation was carried out in 879-880, but the anti-Latin line was laid by Photius in the District Envoy to the bishops' thrones of the Skhoda, formed the basis of the rich polemical tradition, in the course of discussions between V centuries.
12. 895 rіk - creation of the oldest codex of Plato
Manuscript side of E. D. Clarke 39 with the works of Plato. 895 rіk The copying of the tetralogy was sent for the zamovlennia of Arefi of Caesarea for 21 gold coins. It is said that the scholia (comments in the margins) were filled in by Aretha himself. At the end of the 9th century, a new era of antiquity fell on the Byzantine culture. Around Patriarch Photius, a circle was formed, to which included yoga scholars: Emperor Leo VI the Wise, Bishop of Caesarea Aretha and other philosophers and clergy. The stench copied, scribbled and commented on the work of ancient Greek authors. The oldest and most authoritative list of Plato's works (collected under the code E. D. Clarke 39 from the Bodleian Library of Oxford University) will be created at the same time for Arefi's prayer.
Among the texts, yakі tsіkavili erudite epochs, before the high-ranking church ієrarchіv, bul pagan works. Arethas made copies of the works of Aristotle, Elias Aristides, Euclid, Homer, Lukian and Mark Aurelius, and Patriarch Photius included up to his "Mirioobibliona" "Mirioobiblion"(Literally, "Ten thousand books") - a look at the books read by Photiem, which, in fact, were not 10 thousand, but a total of 279. annotations to the novels of Hellenism, evaluating not them, it would have been an anti-Christian zmist, but the style and manner of the sheet and, with it, creating a new terminological apparatus of literary criticism, which is the same as the ancient grammarians. Leo VI himself did not only commemorate holy rites at the church, as if he especially performed (often improvised) after services, and also wrote Anacreontic poetry in the ancient Greek manner. And prizvisko the Wise are connected with the collection of prophecies attributed to him about the fall and the reconciliation of Constantinople, as it was foretold in the 17th century in Russia, if the Greeks tried to heal Tsar Oleksiy Mikhailovich before the campaign against the empire of Osman.
The epoch of Photius and Leo VI of the Wise marks the period of the Macedonian revival (names after the ruling dynasty) in Byzantium, as well as the era of encyclopedism and the first Byzantine humanism.
13. 952 rec - completion of work on the treatise "On the management of the empire"
Christ bless Emperor Kostyantin VII. Razblena panel. 945 rіk
Wikimedia Commons
Under the intercession of Emperor Kostyantyn VII Porphyrogenitus (913-959), a large-scale project was introduced into life to codify the knowledge of Byzantines in all spheres of human life. Myra Bezpo -Serdenoi Kostyanthin is not the time, but the bouti is vast to the point of the specialty, the priest of the bloomers of the ambiziyahi, the Yamper, Knowing the Yoma did not judge the rules, the bilshi of the living vimusli, the throne is not a reservoir. At the order of Kostyantin Bula, an official history of the 9th century (the so-called Prodovzhuvach Theophan) was written, they collected information about the sum of the Byzantine peoples and lands (“About the management of the empire”), about the geography and history of the regions of the empire (“About the femi Fema- Byzantine Viysk-administrative district.”), about the agricultural state (“Geoponics”), about the organization of military campaigns and embassies, and about the court ceremonial (“About the ceremonies of the Byzantine court”). At the same time, the regulation of church life is taking place: the Synaxar and the Typicon of the Great Church are being created, which determine the order of the commemoration of saints and the conduct of church services, and even after a decade (close to 980) of a large-scale project for the unification of the metaphor of the symbolism of life literature. Approximately at this hour, the all-season encyclopedic dictionary of the Court is being compiled, which includes about 30 thousand articles. And the largest encyclopedia of Kostyantin is an anthology of records of ancient and early Zantine authors about all spheres of life, which is mentally called "Excerpts" Apparently, the encyclopedia included 53 sections. Povnistyu diyshov only divided “About embassies”, privately - “About honesty and vices”, “About words against emperors”, “About thoughts”. Among the chapters that were not spared: “About the people”, “About the decline of emperors”, “About those who are guilty”, “About Caesars”, “About feats”, “About settlement”, “About watering”, “About the messenger ”, “About promo”, “About whores”, “About victory”, “About defeat”, “About strategies”, “About marriage”, “About miracles”, “About battles”, “About writings”, “About sovereignty management”, “About church inquiries”, “About the speech”, “About the coronation of emperors”, “About the death (dethronement) of emperors”, “About fines”, “About the saint”, “About transfer”, “About repairs”, “ About the causes of the war”, “About the oblog”, “About the fortress”..
Pryzvisko Porphyrogenitus was given to the children of emperors who reigned, as people were born in the Porphyrium Chamber of the Great Palace in Constantinople. Kostyantyn VII, son of Leo VI the Wise, was born as a fourth son, rightly born at this chamber, but formally illegally born. Obviously, it is not enough to grant him the right to the throne. Batko having made him his spivruler, and after his death, the young Kostyantin ruled six fates under the guardianship of the regents. In 919, the commander of the Roman I Lakapin, who was in line with the Macedonian dynasty, having seen his daughter for Kostyantin, and then crowned the spivruver, had usurped the power under the drive of Kostyantin's rebellion. At the time of the beginning of independent rule, Kostyantyn formally became emperor for more than 30 years, and he was for more than 40 years.
14. 1018 - the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom
Angels lay on Vasil II the imperial crown. Miniature from the Basil Psalter, Marchian Library. XI century Ms. gr. 17 / Biblioteca Marciana
The reign of Vasil II of Bulgaria (976-1025) is the hour of the unprecedented expansion of the church and political influx of Byzantium in the summіzhnі kraїni: so called friend (residual) baptism of Russia Dir with the boyars were baptized near Kiev, where specifically for whom Patriarch Photius appointed the bishop); in 1018 years of the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom, to bring to the liquidation of the autonomous Bulgarian patriarchy, which, having awakened mayzhe 100 years, that zasnuvannya zamіst nіgo navіvsamostiynoї Okhridskoї arhієpiskopiї; in the wake of the temporal campaigns, the Byzantine volodinnya Skhodі expands.
At the internal politics, Vasil used to carry out riots for the fencing of the great landlord clans, as they actually molded the military armies in the 970-980s during the Gromadyan wars, as if they misrepresented the power of Vasil. Vіn namagavsya zhorstnyh visits prizupiniti wealth of the great landowners (the so-called dynatіv Dinat ( type Greek. δυνατός) - strong, strained.), in some cases they go to the point of direct confiscation of land. However, it brought only a temporal effect, centralization in the administrative and military spheres neutralized the hard superniks, but in the long-term perspective, it made the empire inconsistent in front of new threats - the Normans, the Seljuks and the Pechenigs. The Macedonian dynasty, which ruled over the second half of the century, was formally interrupted at least in 1056 roci, but in fact, already in 1020-30, the real power was taken away by the officials from the bureaucratic families and splendid clans.
Nashchadki rewarded Vasil with the prize of a Bulgarian fighter for his hardship among the wars with the Bulgarians. For example, after the victory at the virishal battle, there was a mountain of Belasitsa in 1014 rows of wines, having punished 14 thousand brothers at once. If it's a winklo itself, it's not visible. Precisely, what happened before the end of the 12th century, if, according to the testimony of the 13th century historian George Acropolit, the Bulgarian Tsar Kaloyan (1197-1207) started the ruins of Byzantine places in the Balkans, proudly calling himself a Roman fighter and at the same time opposing himself to Vasil.
Crisis of the XI century
15. 1071 - Battle of Manzikert
Battle at Manzikert. Miniature from the book "About the Misfortune of Famous People" by Boccaccio. XV century
Bibliothèque nationale de France
Half a crisis, Sho, who was struck by the death of Vasilya II, went crazy in the middle of the XI table: clani, yak і wound, competed, dynasted one - ’1028 to 1081 rits on the Vizantiysky throne, 11 -VIII. The call to Byzantium was pressed by the Pechenigs and the Seljuk Turks The power of the Turkic-Seljuks for less than ten years in the XI century subdued the territory of modern Iran, Iraq, Virmenia, Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, and became the main threat to Byzantium on the Skhodі.— stay, having won 1071 fate in the battle of Manzikert Manzikert- at the same time, a small place Malazgirt on the hidden edge of Turechchini is next to Lake Van., allowed the empire a greater part of its territory near Asia Minor. No less painful for Byzantium was the large-scale rozryv of church vіdnosin with Rome in 1054 roci, which arbitrarily took away the name of the Great Schism Schism(Vid Greek. σχίζμα) - roz., Through which Byzantium spent the rest of the ecclesiastical influx in Italy. On the other hand, the co-workers of Mayzha did not commemorate the price of the undertaking and did not give it any proper meaning.
However, the very era of political instability, the cunning of social cordons and, as a result, high social mobility gave rise to a unique figure for Byzantium, the figure of Mikhail Psellos - a scholarly official, who took an active part in the I" is also autobiographical) , brooding over the most complex theological and philosophical nuggets, cultivating pagan Chaldean oracles, creating creations in all conceivable genres - from literary criticism to hagiography. The situation of intellectual freedom gave a new type of typical Byzantine branch of Neoplatonism: the title of "pat philosophers" Ipat philosophers- in fact, the leading philosopher of the empire, a clerk of the philosophical school near Constantinople. Psella changed John Ital, who lived not only Plato and Aristotle, but also such philosophers as Amonius, Philopon, Porfiry and Proclus, accepted, behind the words of yoga opponents, narrated about the transmigration of souls and the immortality of ideas.
Komnіnіvske revival
16. 1081 - came to the reign of Oleksiy I Room
Christ blesses Emperor Oleksiy I Komnіn. Miniature from "Dogmatic Panoply" by Euphemia Zigaben. XII century In 1081, as a result of a compromise with the clans of Duk, Meliseni and Palaiologoi, the Komnin family came to power. Vono step by step monopolized all the sovereign power and folded dynastic hats took away a lot of superniks. Starting from Oleksiy I Komnіna (1081-1118), the aristocratization of the Byzantine suspresium is beginning to grow, social mobility is declining, intellectual freedom is growing, and imperial power is actively entering the spiritual sphere. The beginning of this process of marking the church-sovereign arraignment of John Ital for "Palatonic ideas" and paganism in 1082 roci. Let us follow the litigation of Leo of Chalcedon, who opposed the confiscation of church power to cover the military needs (at the same time, Byzantium waged wars with the Sicilian Normans and bakers) and the ice did not call Oleksiya in iconoclasm. Crack down on the Bogomils Bogomilstvo- vchennya, which viniklo in the Balkans in the X century, rich in what the religion of the Manicheev was involved. For the gifts of the Bogomils, we will throw off the physical light of creations from heaven by Satan. The human body was the same as that of the creatures, but the axis of the soul was still a gift from the good God. The Bogomils did not recognize the institution of the church and often spoke out against the secular authorities, raising the numerical insurrection., one of them, Vasil, was burnt on a bugatti - a unique phenomenon for the Byzantine practice. In 1117, the commentator of Aristotle, Eustratius Nikeisky, stood before the court for calling the heresy.
In the meantime, the accomplices of that closest blessings remembered Oleksiy I as soon as a ruler, successful with his old politics: he was far away from laying the union with the cross-bearers and the leader of a sensitive blow to the Siljuks in Asia Minor.
In the satire "Timarion", the description is carried out in the name of the hero, which is more expensive for the potoybichchya. At his own confession, I guessed and John Itala, who wanted to take a part in the conversation of the old Greek philosophers, but if they reminisced: notes of the wise. “Odrib'є,” having said wine, “clothing on yourself the Galilean robe, as if they were ringing with divine holy robes, in other words, having accepted the christening, do you pray with us, whose life was known to science and knowledge? Abo throw off all the vulgar cloth, or at once shut down our brotherhood! (Translated by S. V. Polyakova, N. V. Felenkovskaya).
17. 1143 - came to Vlad Manuil I Room
The tendencies that followed Oleksiy I developed under Manuel I Komnіnі (1143-1180). Vіn vstanovit vstanovit special control over the church life of the empire, vnіfіkatsії theological ideas and he himself took part in the church disputes. One of the food, at which Manuil wanted to say his word, was coming: like the incarnations of the Trinity accept the sacrifice for the hour of the Eucharist - is it only God the Father chi Sin, and the Holy Spirit? As if it were true of a friend (and the very same was sung at the cathedral of 1156-1157), then one and the same Sin will be sacrificed, and accepting її.
The old policy of Manuil was marked by failures at the Skhodі (the most terrible is the defeat of the Byzantines, who recognized the defeats at Miriocephaly in 1176 rotations at the hands of the Seljuks) and attempts at diplomatic approach from Sunset. Kіntsevoy method of zahodnoї politics Manuil bachiv association with Rome on the basis of the recognition of the supreme power of the single Roman emperor, as a matter of fact, Manuil himself, that association of the church, yakі officially split up in. However, the project was not implemented.
In the era of Manuil, literary creativity became a profession, literary groups were blamed for their artistic fashion, elements of the folk movie penetrated the court aristocratic literature (you can know them in the works of the poet Theodore Prodrom or the genre of Manaszhustin), іyskogo love novel of the growth of the world of the author's self-reflection.
Sun of Byzantium
18. 1204 - the fall of Constantinople at the hands of the Christians
A political crisis fell on the reign of Andronik I Komnіn (1183-1185): after pursuing a populist policy (changing tributes, tearing up the blues from Zakhod and zhortoly dealing with corrupt officials), it vindicated the other significant part of the property and strengthened the empire.
The Christian bearers attack Constantinople. Miniature from the chronicle "The Conquest of Constantinople" by Geoffroy de Villardouin. Approximately 1330 Vіllarduen was one of the kerіvniki in the campaign. Bibliothèque nationale de France
The attempt to establish a new dynasty of Angels did not bear fruit, the suspense was deconsolidated. These people had bad luck on the periphery of the empire: a rebellion broke out in Bulgaria; the cross-bearers sacked Cyprus; The Sicilian Normans ravaged Thessalonica. The struggle between the contenders for the throne of the middle family of Angels gave the European countries a formal reason to get involved. On April 12, 1204, participants in the Fourth Crusade campaign plundered Constantinople. The most beautiful artistic description of these podias can be read in the "History" by Mikiti Khoniata and the postmodern novel "Baudolino" by Umberto Eko, which for an hour literally copies the side of Khoniat.
On the ruins of the vast empire, a few powers fell under the Venetian administrations, less than a small world inheriting the Byzantine state institutions. The Latin empire with its center near Constantinople was a feudal illumination of the Western Europe, the very character of the duchies and kingdoms, which vinicles of Thessalonica, Athens and the Peloponnese.
Andronik was one of the most eccentric rulers of the empire. Mikita Khoniat rozpovida, that having punished the creation of his portrait in one of the churches of the capital, he looked like a poor farmer in high boots and with a scythe in his hands. There were legends about Andronika's zhorstokism. Vіn powering the public bedrooms of their opponents on the subrome, for an hour some kati zashtovhuvali the victim in richness with guest peaks, and Georgy Disipat, who dared to sue yogo zhorstokіst, threatening to pіdsmazhit on the pіdsmіzhі and vіdpraviti retinue zamіst stravy.
19. 1261 - Conquest of Constantinople
The invasion of Constantinople brought to vindication three Greek powers, which nevertheless claimed for those who would be the full-fledged declines of Byzantium: the Nicene Empire at the pivnіchny entry of Asia Minor under the patronage of the Laskariv dynasty; The empire of Trabzon near the peninsula-hidden part of the Black Sea shores of Asia Minor, the lands of the Komnіn — Great Komnіni ruled, yakі took the title of "emperor of the Romans", that of the Epirus kingdom from the western part of the dynasty of the Angels of the Balkans. The rebirth of the Byzantine Empire in 1261 took place on the basis of the Nikean Empire, which brought down competitors and won the victory in the fight against the Venetians to help the German emperor and the Genoese. As a result, the Latin Emperor and Patriarch Begley, and Mikhailo VIII Palaiologos occupied Constantinople, re-crowned and voted "new Kostyantyn".
At his own policy, the founder of the new dynasty tried to reach a compromise with the foreign powers, and in 1274 to bring about a church union with Rome, which made the Greek bishop and Constantinople elite against him.
Irrespective of those that formally the empire was revived, its culture spent a lot of "constantinopolecentricity": Palaeologists were embarrassed by the presence of the Venetians in the Balkans and the significant autonomy of Trebizond, the rulers of which formally clarity.
Yaskrave is a sign of the imperial ambitions of Trebizond - awakening there in the middle of the 13th century and celebrating the Cathedral of St. Sophia the Wisdom of God. This temple at once and commemorated Trebizond to Constantinople with the Holy Sophia, and symbolically transformed Trebizond into a new Constantinople.
20. 1351 - confirmation of the vchenny of Gregory Palamy
Saint Gregory Palamas. The badge of the master of Pivnіchnoi Greece. Cob XV cent.
On the other quarter of the 14th century, an ear of palamitis supercooks falls. St. Gregory Palamas (1296-1357) was the original thinker, who raised the vchennya about God’s divine essence (because of such a person you cannot be alone, you can’t know її) and the uncreated divine energies the possibility of looking through the “reasonable sense” of the Divine Light, revealed, gazing to the Gospels, the apostles at the hour of the reincarnation of Christ For example, in the Gospel of Matthew, it is lightly described as follows: “After six days, taking Jesus Peter, Jacob and John, Yogo’s brother, and calling them on the high mountain alone, and pretending to be before them: became strong, like light” (Mt. 17:1-2)..
In the 40s and 50s of the XIV century, the theological debate was closely intertwined with political opposition: Palamas, yogis (Patriarchs Calist I and Philotheus Kokkin, Emperor John VI Kantakouzin) and opponents triarch John IV Cripple, philosopher and writer Nicephorus Gregory) alternately got tactful wins, then recognized defeats.
The Cathedral of 1351 rock, having approved the victory of Palamy, protested the end of superechtsi, on the eve of which it was a little bit in the XV century, and then closed the way of anti-palamis at the power of the church. Acting successors following Igor Medvedev I. P. Medvedev. Byzantine humanism of the XIV-XV centuries. SPb., 1997. to sing with the anti-palamites of the Duma, let us think of Nikifor Grigori, tendencies close to the ideas of the Italian humanists. More and more humanistic ideas were known from the work of the Neoplatonist and the ideologist of the pagan renewal of Byzantium Georgiy Gemist Plifon, whose practice was crippled by the official church.
It can be said from the serious scientific literature that the words “(anti)palmity” and “(anti)sihasti” are synonymous. We don't call it right. Ісіхасм (from the Greek ἡσυχία [ісіхія] — lack of innocence) as a self-praised practice of prayer, which gives the possibility of an uninterrupted connection with God, having eliminated the practice of theologians in the greater early epochs of the Theologian X-Xth tables of Simeon, for example, at the New Table of Simeon.
21. 1439 - Ferraro-Florentine union
Florentine Union of Pope Eugene IV. 1439 rіk Folded in two languages - Latin and Greek. British Library Board/Bridgeman Images/Fotodom
At the beginning of the 15th century, it became obvious that the Ottoman threat was to feed the very foundation of the empire. Byzantine diplomacy was actively joking around for support at Zakhod, negotiations were being held on how to unite the Church in exchange for the help of Rome. In the 1430s, the principle of the decision about the union was accepted, but the subject of bargaining was the place of the cathedral (on the Byzantine or on the Italian territory) and that status (would be a distant sign of the “union”). Zreshtoy zustrіchі vіdbulis in Italy — on the cob at Ferrari, then at Florence and Rome. At the red 1439, the Union of Ferrara-Florentia was signed. Tse meant that formally the Byzantine church recognized the correctness of the Catholics from their diets, including those from the diets. Ale unia did not know support from the Byzantine episcopate (bishop Mark Evgenik became the head of its opponents), which brought two parallel hierarchies - the Uniate Orthodox one - to the conscription at Constantinople. After 14 years, right after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottomans decided to squabble against the anti-uniates and appointed as patriarch the successor of Mark Eugenik - Gennadius Scholarius, but formally the union became less than 1484 years old.
Just as in the history of the church, the union was left behind by a rather short-lived experiment, then the next trace in the history of culture is significantly significant. Figures similar to Bissarion of Nicaea, the teachings of the neo-pagan Plifon, the Uniate metropolitan, and then the cardinal and titular Latin patriarch of Constantinople, played a key role in the transmission of Byzantine (and ancient) culture to Zahid. Bessarion, in the epitaph to which the words were written: “With your help Greece moved to Rome”, translating the Greek classical authors into Latin, patronizing the Greek emigrants-intellectuals and giving Venice its library, which included more than 700 manuscripts (at that time). yak became the basis of the Library of St. Mark.
The Ottoman state (named after the first ruler Osman I) vinikla in 1299 on the ruins of the Seljuk Sultanate in Anatolia and during the 14th century it increased its expansion in Asia Minor and the Balkans. A short break in Byzantium was given by the opposition to the Ottomans of Tamerlane at the turn of the XIV-XV century, the prosthesis with the arrival of Mehmed I in 1413, the Ottomans again began to threaten Constantinople.
22. 1453 - fall of the Byzantine Empire
Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror. Painting by Gentile Bellina. 1480 rіk
Wikimedia Commons
The remaining Byzantine emperor Kostyantyn XI Palaiologos tried unsuccessfully to imitate the Ottoman threat. Until the beginning of the 1450s, Byzantium took over a small region on the outskirts of Constantinople (Trapezund near Constantinople was actually independent), and the Ottomans controlled as much of Anatolia as the Balkans (Thessalonica fell in 1430, in 1446 the devastations of Pelo). In the wake of the allies, the emperor turned to Venice, Aragon, Dubrovnik, Ugrian region, the Genoese, the Pope of Rome, proteo real help (moreover, obmezhena) they propagated only the Venetians and Rome. In spring 1453, the battle for the city began, on May 29 Constantinople perished, and Kostyantyn XI perished in battle. About yogo death, surrounding it as we do not know vchenim, it was piled up anonymous names of histories; in the Greek folk culture, a legend was founded about those who left the Byzantine tsar, as an angel at Marmur and Nin, rested in the taєmnіy pecherі of the Golden Gate, and the axis-axis was thrown and the vision of the Ottomans.
Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror did not break the line of recession with Byzantium, but by declining the title of Roman emperor, supporting the Greek church, stimulating the development of Greek culture. An hour of yogic management of designations by projects, which at first glance seem to be fantastic. The Greek-Italian humanist-Catholic George of Trebizond wrote about the establishment of the all-world empire on the island of Mehmed, in which Islam and Christianity unite into one religion. And the historian Mykhailo Kritovul, having created a history-praise of Mehmed, is a typical Byzantine panegyric with obv'yazkovy rhetoric, but in honor of the Muslim Volodar, prote names are not a sultan, but in the Byzantine manner - basil.
Archangel Michael and Manuel II Palaiologos. XV century Palazzo Ducale, Urbino, Italy / Bridgeman Images / Fotodom1. The lands under the name of Byzantium did not exist at all
Yakby the Byzantines of the 6th, 10th and 14th centuries felt from us that the stench is the Byzantines, that the country is called Byzantium, the greater number of them simply did not understand us. And those, who are still sensible, would say that we want to follow them, calling them the inhabitants of the capital, and even old my mother, as if they were only victorious, as if they were trying to make their promo yakomoga vyshukanishoy.
Part of the consular diptych of Justinian. Constantinople, 521 rіk Diptychs were presented to the consuls in honor of their entry into the settlement. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Krayni, yak її Meshkans called Byzantium, no matter how; the word "Byzantine" was by no means the self-name of the Meshkants in any state. The word "vіzantіytsі" was sometimes victorious for the recognition of the inhabitants of Constantinople - for the name of the ancient city of Vіzantіy (Βυζάντιον), as in 330 rotations it was refounded by Emperor Kostyantyn under the name of Constantinople. The stench was called so only in texts written in a clever literary language, stylized as an ancient Greek, which has not spoken to anyone for a long time. No one knew the other Vyzantiitsiv, that and qi were only founded in texts accessible to a narrow circle of illuminated elite, who wrote the archaic version of Greek language and rozumila yogo.
The self-name of the Skhidnoy Roman Empire starting from the III-IV century (and after the sacking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453) had a lot of stable and all sensible phrases and words: power of the romans, but the Romans, (βασιλεία τῶν Ρωμαίων), Romania (Ρωμανία), Romaida (Ρωμαΐς ).
The Meskants themselves called themselves Romans- the Romans (Ρωμαίοι), they were ruled by the Roman emperor - basileus(Βασιλεύς τῶν Ρωμαίων ), and their capital New Rome(Νέα Ρώμη) - the very name of the place was founded by Kostyantyn.
Did the word “Byzantium” come together, and at the same time it was said about the Byzantine Empire as a state, which vindicated after the fall of the Roman Empire on the territory of the other provinces? On the right, in the fact that in the XV century, at once, from the sovereignty of the Schidno-Roman Empire (this is how Byzantium is often called in modern historical creations, and it is closer to the self-confidence of the Byzantines themselves), in fact, she lost her voice, which is felt beyond the borders: the Roman tradition of self-description was isolated in the borders of the Greek lands that lay under the Ottoman Empire; now it’s more important than those who thought about Byzantium and wrote about Western Europe.
Ieronim Wolf. Engraving by Dominikus Custos. 1580 rіk Herzog Anton Ulrich-Museum Braunschweig In the Western European tradition, the state of Byzantium was actually created by the Ієro-nim Wolf, a German humanist and historian, who in 1577 saw the “Corpus of the Byzantine History” - a small anthology of the works of Latin kim translation. From the "Corps" itself, the concept of "Byzantine" has gone up to the Western European scientific obigu.
Wolf's twirl formed the basis of other collections of Byzantine historians, which were also called the "Corpus of Byzantine History", but on a richer scale - in 37 volumes of visions for the conquest of King Louis XIV of France. Nareshti, the Venetian revisiting of another “Corpus”, the English historian of the 18th century Edward Gibbon, having written his “History of the fall and the fall of the Roman Empire” - perhaps, such a book is not small for such a majestic and at once ruinous contribution to the creation of that contemporary popularization.
Romeї z їhnoy іstorichnoyu and cultural tradition buli, in such a rank, spared not only his voice, but the right to self-name and samosvіdomіst.
2. The Byzantines didn't know they weren't Romans
Autumn. Koptsk panel. IV century Whitworth Art Gallery, University of Manchester, UK / Bridgeman Images / Fotodom For the Byzantines, who themselves called themselves Romans-Romans, the history of the Great Empire never ended. The very idea would have seemed absurd to him. Romulus and Rem, Numa, August Octavian, Kostyantin I, Justinian, Phocas, Michael the Great Komnіn - all the stench, however, from time immemorial stood on the choli of the Roman people.
Before the fall of Constantinople (and navіt after the new one), the Byzantine people were respected by the inhabitants of the Roman Empire. Social institutions, laws, sovereignty - all were taken from Byzantium from the hours of the first Roman emperors. The adoption of Christianity mayzha did not affect the legal, economic and administrative arrangements of the Roman Empire. Just as the turns of the Christian church of the Byzantine Empire succumbed to the Old Testament, then they brought the beginning of their political history, like the ancient Romans, to the Trojans, to Aeneas, the hero of the main Roman identity of Virgil.
The suspіlny order of the Roman Empire and almost belonging to the great Roman patria dwindled in the Byzantine world with the Greek science and written culture: the Byzantines respected their classical ancient Greek literature. For example, in the 11th century, the monk and teachings of Mikhailo Psellos seriously mourn in one treatise about those who write better - the Athenian tragedian Euripides or the Byzantine sings of the 7th century Georgy Pisida, the author of a panegyric about the Avaro-Slovakian oblogue of Constantinople in 626 " creation of the world. We sing, translating the words of the Jansk language, George paraphrases the ancient authors of Plato, Plutarch, Ovid and Pliny the Elder.
At that very hour, on a par with ideology, Byzantine culture often stood in contrast to classical antiquity. Christian apologists remembered that the whole Greek antiquity - poetry, theater, sports, sculpture - is permeated with religious cults of pagan deities. Hellenistic values (material and physical beauty, exaltation to satisfaction, human glory and honors, military and athletic victory, eroticism, rational philosophical thought) were judged like non-Christians. Basil the Great at the famous talk “Before the young people about those who are like pagan creations” to spit out a head for the Christian youth in a familiar way of life, which is propagated by the Chitachev in the creations of the Hellenic. Vіn for the sake of choosing for them is less of a story, corisne in a moral perspective. There is a paradox in the fact that Vasil, like many other Fathers of the Church, having himself obtained the miraculous Hellenic illumination and writing his own works in a classical literary style, shriveling with the tricks of ancient rhetorical mysticism, that mine, as until the th hour already sounded like an archaic.
In fact, the ideological inconsistency with Hellenism did not respect the Byzantine people to be put up to the ancient cultural decline. Ancient texts were not underestimated, but copied, with which rewriting they tried to improve accuracy, if they could, in a few fluctuations, throw out such an erotic passage. Hellenic literature continued to be the basis of school programs in Byzantium. Illuminated people are small to read and know the epos of Homer, the tragedies of Euripides, promote Demos-Phen and win the Hellenic cultural code in the heavenly works, for example, call the Arabs Persians, and Rus' - Hyperborea. Byzantium saved a lot of elements of ancient culture, the truth, having changed to the point of being unrecognized and knowing a new religious zmist: for example, rhetoric became homiletics (the science of church preaching), philosophy became theologians, and the genre of ancient love novel blew into the genre of romance.
3. Byzantium was born, if Antiquity adopted Christianity
When will Byzantium begin? Singing, then, if the history of the Roman Empire ends, - so we called to think. A good idea is given to us by the natural wind to the majestic inflow of the monumental "History of the Fall and the Ruining of the Roman Empire" by Eduard Gibbon.
Written in the 18th century, this book is given as a suggestion to historians, so that non-fakhivtsy look at the period from the 3rd to the 7th centuries (which is now more and more often called ancient antiquity) as if for an hour in the fall of the greatness of the Roman Empire, there were two main factors. tribes and the growing social role of Christianity, which in the IV century became the dominant religion. Byzantium, which is known in the masses as a Christian empire, looms in this perspective as a natural decline of that cultural trance, which, becoming in ancient Antiquity through mass Christianity: the middle ground of religious fanaticism the whole thousand.
An amulet that protects from sight. Byzantium, V-VI centuries
An eye is depicted on one side, and a lion, a snake, a scorpion and a leleka attack on a yak.
© The Walters Art MuseumAmulet made of hematite. Byzantine Egypt, VI-VII centuries
The inscriptions signify yoga as “a woman who suffered for bleeding” (Luke 8:43–48). It was important that hematite helps to bleed, and amulets were even more popular, indicative of health and the menstrual cycle.
Henceforth, as if marveling at the history of Gibbon's eye, Antiquity turns into a tragic and irrevocable end of Antiquity. Ale chi was less than an hour the ruination of a beautiful old age? Historical science is already overwhelmed by the fact that it is not so.
Let us especially forgive the statements about the fatal role of Christianity in the ruined culture of the Roman Empire. The culture of piznyo Antiquity was really hardly inspired by the identification of "pagan" (Roman) and "Christian" (Byzantine). Those who had been ruled by ancient antiquity culture for її creators and coristuvachiv, seemed to be significantly more folded: the Christians of that era were given a wondrous very food about the conflict between the Roman and the religious. In the 4th century, Roman Christians could easily place images of pagan deities, vikonanikh in the antique style, on objects: for example, on one screen, given to the name, Venus is bare to judge from the pious call “Seconds and the Project, live with Christ.”
On the territory of the future Byzantium, it was so unproblematic for the contemporary fusion of the pagan and Christian in the artistic halls: in the VI century, the images of Christ and the saints were consecrated at the technique of the traditional Egyptian funeral portrait, the most common type of portrait of a yaf Fayum portrait- A variety of funeral portraits, expanded in Hellenistic Egypt in the Ι-III centuries AD. e. The image was applied with hot farbs on a heated wax ball.. Christian visuality in ancient Antiquity did not obv'yazkovo oppose to itself pagan, Roman traditions: more often than not (or maybe, navpaki, naturally and unimpressedly) it was finished. The same fusion of pagan and Christian is seen in the literature of modern antiquity. Arator sings at the 6th century declaring in the Roman cathedral hexametrical about the work of the apostles, written in the stylistic traditions of Virgil. At the Christianized Egypt in the middle of the 5th century (at that hour it is close to the second century of the century there are different forms of blackness) sings Nonn from the city of Panopol (modern Akmim) write a translation (paraphrase) of the Gospel of St. zapozyuchi qiles of verbal formulas and figurative layers from yoga epic Gospel of John, 1:1-6 (synodal translation):
On the back of the hand was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. It was on the cob of God. Everything began through the New, and without the New, nothing began to rise, which began to rise. Nyomu had life, and life was the light of people. And the light shines in the darkness, and the darkness did not burn Yogo. Bula people, sent in the sight of God; im'ya youmu Ivan.
Nonn from Panopol. Paraphrase of the Gospel of John, song 1 (translated by Yu. A. Golubets, D. A. Pospelova, A. V. Markov):
Logos, God Child, Light, people in the Light,
Unbelievable sight of the Father of Vin on the infinite throne!
Heavenly God, Logos, aje Ti is righteous
Shouting at once with the Forerunner, the Creator of the world,
Oh, the most recent omniscience! Everything became through New
What is breathless and in the soul! My posture, which is rich,
Chi obviously scho perebuvaє? I in the New Spring
Life, which is spontaneous to everyone, is light for a short people.<…>
In the bjolozhivchiy part
Mandrivnik nagirny appeared, the inhabitant of the desert schilia,
Vіn - the herald of the christening of the outside, im'ya -
God's man, Ivan, guides. .
Portrait of a young girl. II century©Google Cultural Institute
Funeral portrait of a man. III century©Google Cultural Institute
Christ Pantocrator. Icon from the monastery of St. Catherine. Sinai, middle of the VI century. Wikimedia Commons
Saint Peter. Icon from the monastery of St. Catherine. Sinai, VII century© campus.belmont.edu
Dynamic changes that occurred in different layers of the culture of the Roman Empire in ancient Antiquity, importantly connected with Christianity, as Christians of that hour themselves were such myths to classical forms and in the figurative mysticism other spheres of life ). The future of Byzantium was popularized in an era, in a kind of interrelation between religion, my artistic, my audience, as well as the sociology of historical failures, which were collapsible and indirect. The stench carried with them the potential of tієї foldedness and richness of plan, as if it was roaring with the prolongation of the centenary of Byzantine history.
4. In Byzantium they spoke only mine, but they wrote another
The current picture of Byzantium is paradoxical. The empire not only laid claim to the right to attack on the basis of the Roman Empire and declined its institutions, but from the point of view of its political ideology, the Roman Empire did not speak Latin. On nіy they moved in the western provinces and in the Balkans, until the 6th century, the won was abandoned by the official my jurisprudence (the remaining legislators became the Code of Justinian in 529, - after the new law was seen in the walnut), in hoo at the viysk and administrative spheres), the early Zantine Constantinople, having added the car'er capabilities of Latin grammarians. But all the same, the latina was not my guide to early Byzantium. Let the Latin poets Koripp and Pristian live in Constantinople, we do not remember these names on the sides of the handbook of the history of Byzantine literature.
We can not say what the very moment the Roman emperor becomes Byzantine: a clear cordon does not allow the formal identity of institutions. In case of searches for evidence on the food chain, it is necessary to turn to non-formalized cultural authorities. The Roman Empire resurfaces in the Byzantine tim, which in the remainder of the century are characterized by the rise of Roman institutions, Greek culture and Christianity, and a synthesis based on the Greek language is being developed. To that, one of the criteria, on which we could have scurried, became: the Byzantine emperor, on the authority of the yogo Roman colleague, it is easier to speak Greek, lower Latin.
Ale, what is this walnut? The alternative, how to tell the police about the books and programs of philological faculties, is tempting: we can know in them either a long-standing or modern Greek language. Other points are not forwarded. Through these confusions, it turns out that the Greek language of Byzantium is either created a long time ago (mayzhe Plato's dialogues, but not yet known), or proto-Greetsk (maybe talk Tsipras with the IMF, but not yet in full). The history of the 24th century of the uninterrupted development of the movie is straight forward and asks: is it the inevitable decline of the sun and the degradation of the old Greek (this is what Western European philologists-classics thought before the consolidation of Byzantine studies as an independent science of science), the pro-new Greek discipline ї (so).
True, the Byzantine Greek is very catchy. It is impossible to see the development of the same as the low progressive, subsequent changes, the shards on the skin crotch in front of the movable crocheting, falling back. The reason for this is the appointment of the Byzantines themselves to the move. The socially prestigious boulevard is the norm of Homer and the classics of Attic prose. To write good meant to write a history without a trace of Xenophon or Thucydides (the last historian, who dared to introduce into his text the old-Attic elements, which were created archaic already in the classical era, - the records of the fall of Constantinople, Laonik іytsіv stretching uєї іstorії іmperiї necessariy in a literal sense, speak alone (changing), and write another (caught in the classical immutability) move. The duality of modern evidence is the most important rice of the Byzantine culture.
Ostracon from a fragment of "Iliad" in Coptic language. Byzantine Egypt, 580-640 roki
Ostrakoni - shards of earthenware vessels - were victorious for recording biblical verses, legal documents, rachunkivs, school orders and prayers, if papyrus was not available or it was too expensive.
© The Metropolitan Museum of ArtOstracon with the troparion of the Coptic Mother of God. Byzantine Egypt, 580-640 roki© The Metropolitan Museum of Art
The situation was aggravated by those who, during the classical antiquity, behind the singing genres were fixed singing dialect features: epical verses were written by Homer, and medical treatises were composed by the Ionian dialect of the legacy of Hippocrates. Similar to the picture of Bachimo in Byzantium. The long-standing Greek vowels lasted for long and short ones, and that orderly chirping became the basis of the old Greek verses. In the era of Hellenism, the rendition of the voices for the old days came from the Greek language, and yet, no less than a thousand years later, the heroic sings and epitaphs were written in such a way that the phonetic system was deprived of the invariable hours of Homer. Vіdmіnnostі permeated іnshi mоvnі rіvnі: it was necessary to make a phrase, like Homer, choose words, like Homer's, and slander and change them visibly to a paradigm, which was in the living language of a thousand years ago.
However, not everyone was able to write with antique brevity and simplicity; Often, when trying to reach the ideal of Byzantine, the authors spent a little more than the world, pragmatically writing more correctly than their idols. So, we know that the far-off vіdmіnok, scho having started in the ancient Greek, in the new Greek mayzhe, I will reappear. It would be logical to admit that from the skin capitals of the literature of the wines there will be a sharpening of the Daedals more, until the step by step is known. Prote recent studies have shown that in Byzantine high literature, far-flung literature is more often victorious than in literature of classical antiquity. But the same zbіlshennya frequency i talk about razhituvannya normi! The intrusiveness of the victorious tієї chi іnshої forms, say about your nevmіnnya її correctly zastosovuvat no less than the lower її povna vіdsutnіst іn your language.
At that very hour, the moving element took its toll. About those, how the roman language was changing, we know for sure the rewriting of manuscripts, non-literary writings and so-called folk literature. The term “people's” is unpretentious: it describes the phenomenon for us in a richer way, the lower one is more “folk”, shards of the simple elements of the simple mіskoї rozmovnoї mov were victorious at the monuments, created at the stakes of the Constantinople elite. It became a regular literary fashion in the twelfth century, if some authors themselves could work in many registers, pronouncing chitachev’s vishukan prose today, may be unrecognizable as atic, and tomorrow — chi not maidan virshiki.
Diglossia, or duality, gave rise to another typical Byzantine phenomenon - metaphrasing, tobto perekladennya, paraphrase navpіl z perekladeniya, clad zmіstu dzherela new words zі iznizhennyam chi stylistic register. Moreover, the destruction could go both along the line of aggravation (sharp syntax, vishukani figures of the movie, antique allusions and quotations), and along the line of the simplification of the movie. Zhodin Tvіr without being underestimated, the language of sacred texts in Byzantium is not small for the sacred status: the Gospels could be rewritten in a different stylistic key (like, for example, slaying Nonn Panopolitansky, who was already guessing) - and it didn’t bring down anathema on the author’s head. It was necessary to check the 1901 year, if the translation of the Gospels into modern Greek (essentially, the same metaphrase) viviv opponents and defended the movable renovation on the street and summoned up to dozens of victims. At this sense, the natovpi, who stole the “mova of the ancestors” and fought over the translator Oleksandros Pallis, were far away from the Byzantine culture, not only what they wanted, but what Pallis himself.
5. Byzantium had iconoclasts - and this is a terrible mystery
Iconoclast John the Gramatik and Bishop Anthony of Sileisky. Khludiv Psalter. Byzantium, tentatively 850 rіk Miniature to Psalm 68, vіrsh 2: “I gave me a jovch, and in my right they gave me a drink of oct.” Dії ії іkonoclasts, yakі smear wadding іn іk Christ, pіvnyuyuschisya z roses on Golgotha. A right-handed warrior to offer Christ's sponge with an ott. Shine on fire - Ivan Gramatik and Bishop Anthony of Sileisky. rijksmuseumamsterdam.blogspot.ru Iconoclasm is the most homely for a wide audience and the most mysterious thing for fahivtsy in the period of the history of Byzantium. About clay trail, like a wine left from the cultural memory of Europe, to say it is possible, for example, in the English language to beat the word iconoclast (“iconoclast”) in the historical context, in the hourly meaning “rebel, ruin pidvalin”.
Podіeva canvas is like that. Until the turn of the 7th and 8th centuries, the theory of worship of religious images hopelessly stood out in practice. The Arab conquests of the middle of the 7th century brought the empire to a deep cultural crisis, and that, in its turn, gave rise to an increase in apocalyptic moods, a multiplicity of zaboboniv and a surge of disordered forms and icon veneration, which often do not wake up in magical practices. With a selection of the miracles of the saints, the wilting of the temple from the melted druk with the face of St. Artemy zljuvav vіd hryzhі, and the saints Cosmas and Damian forged the sufferer, punishing her wipiti, zmіshavshi with water, plaster from frescoes with їkhnіm images.
Such a shanuvannya of icons, which did not achieve philosophical and theological priming, called for the destruction of a part of the clergy, like signs of paganism in the new one. Emperor Leo III Іsaur (717-741), leaning against the foldable political situation, was dissatisfied for the creation of a new consolidating ideology. The first icons of iconoclasm lasted until 726-730, and just like the theological obstruction of the iconoclast dogma, so the full repressions of dissidents fell on the hour of the reign of the most important Byzantine emperor - Kopronist V Kopronim (7).
The iconoclastic cathedral of 754, claiming the status of an ecumenical one, shifted the superchick to a new rіven: now it was not about the fight against zabobons and the victorious fence of the Old Testament "Do not make thyself an idol", but about the incarnation of Christ. What can Vіn vvozhatisya imagining, like Yogo's divine nature є "invisible"? The “Christological dilemma” was as follows: icon-readers are guilty either of showing on icons only the body of Christ without the Deity of God (Nestorianism), or of delimiting the deity of Christ through the description of His image of the flesh (monophysitism).
Already in 787, Empress Irina held a new council in Nicaea, the participants of which formulated how to support the dogma of iconoclasm and the dogma of icon veneration, thereby proclaiming a completely theological subversion for previously unregulated practices. Having become an intellectual breakthrough, in the first place, he went down to the “service” and “visible” worship: first you can only honor God, then the same way with another “honor, which is visible to the image, reverberates with the prototype” (the words of Basil the Great, which became the right fading of the icon-worshippers) . In a different way, the theory of homonymy was propagated, that is, the same name, which knew the problem of the portrait similarity of the image and that of the image: the icon of Christ was recognized as such, not the similarity of rice, but the beginning of writing in the name of the act of naming.
Patriarch Nikifor. Miniature from the Psalter of Theodore of Caesarea. 1066 rіk British Library Board. All rights reserved / Bridgeman Images / Fotodom In the 815th century, Emperor Leo V Virmenin reverted to the iconoclastic policy, roaring with such a rite to win a line of decline in terms of appointment to Kostyantyn V, the most successful and most beloved ruler of the Viysks for the rest of the century. On such a call to a friend, iconoclasm falls like a new round of repressions, so a new anger of theological thought. The era of iconoclasm ends in 843, if iconoclasm is still condemned as heresy. And yet, the mayor revisited the Byzantines right up to 1453: for a long time, the participants of the church superechok, victorious, naivithenishing rhetoric, exclaimed one of the other in the chained iconoclasm, and the ringing was more serious ringing in be-yakіy іnshі.
It would have been better to finish everything just that zrozumilo. But just as we try to clarify the whole scheme, our motives seem to be hitky.
The main folding is the mill dzherel. The texts, as far as we know, about earlier iconoclasm, were written much later, moreover, by iconodules. In the 40th century of the 9th century, a new program was launched to write the history of iconoclasm from iconoclastic positions. As a result, the history of the dispute was completely created: create iconoclasts more accessible only in the tendentious selections, and textual analysis shows what the iconodules did, it was created for the creation of the church of Kostyantyn V, they could not have been written earlier than the beginning of the VIII century. To the heads of the authors of the icon-shaping, we have described the history of navivvorit, creating the illusion of tradition: to show that the chanting of icons (and not spontaneously, but comprehended!) was present in the church from the apostolic hours, and iconoclasm is nothing more than an innovation (the word μκα walnut - the most hated word for be some kind of Byzantine), moreover, Svidomo anti-Christian. Iconoclasts were not fighters for the purification of Christianity from paganism, but "Christian accusers" - the word began to mean itself and exclusively iconoclasts. The sides in the iconoclastic superechtsi were not Christians, as if they interpreted one and the same thing in a different way, but Christians and I tell them the same power.
The arsenal of polemical tricks, like victorious ones in these texts to denigrate the opponent, was already great. Legends were created about the hatred of the iconoclasts before the consecration, for example, about the sleeping of Leo III in action, without ever having founded a university in Constantinople, and Kostyantyn V was attributed a fate in pagan rites and human sacrifices, hatred before the Mother of God and doubt in Christ and doubt in Christ. As if similar myths are being made simple and have long been rose up, otherwise they are left in the center of scientific discussions of the donin. For example, it’s less likely that we’ve recently put it in the distance, that a zhorstok of reprisal was blamed on Stefan Novy, who was honored at the face of the martyrs in 766, was tied up not so with his uncompromising icon-shaming position, as he declares life, v. Superechki and about the key nutrition: what is the role of the Islamic influx in the genesis of iconoclasm? how did the iconoclasts stand up to the cult of those holy relics?
Navit language, as we are talking about iconoclasm, is the language of peremozhtsiv. The word "iconoclast" is not a self-name, but a descriptive polemical label, which was blamed by their opponents. Joden "iconoclast" could not wait for such names, just for the fact that the Greek word εἰκών has more meaning than the Russian "icon". Tse be some image, including intangible, and then, call someone an iconoclast - tse declare that you fight against the idea of God-Sin as the image of God the Father, and people as the image of God, and like the Old Testament, like a prototype of the New and so on. Tim more than the iconoclasts themselves insisted that they were stealing the true image of Christ - the eucharistic gift, at the same time as those who their opponents sound like, in fact, it’s not like that, but it’s nothing more than an image.
The victories as a result of their vchennia would itself be called Orthodox at once, and the vchennia of their opponents would be contemptuously called icon worship and they would not talk about iconoclasm, but about the icon worship period in Byzantium. Vtіm, as if it were formed, otherwise the whole future history and visual aesthetics of Hidden Christianity would be.
6. At Zahodі no one liked Byzantium
Wanting to trade, religious and diplomatic contacts between Byzantium and the powers of Western Europe, it was important to talk about the right spirit between Byzantium and the powers of Western Europe. For example, in the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire expanded into barbarian powers and the tradition of “Romanism” was interrupted at the Sunset, but was saved at the Skhodі. Already for the birth of new dynasties, the Germans wanted to restore the decline of their rule in the Roman Empire and for whom they laid dynastic hats with Byzantine princesses. The door of Charlemagne swayed from Byzantium - you can see it in architecture and mysticism. The protémperial claims of Karl Schwidshe were sung by the unreasonableness between the Descent and the Sunset: the culture of the Carolingian Renaissance wanted to create for itself the only legal decline of Rome.
The Christian bearers attack Constantinople. Miniature from the chronicle "The Conquest of Constantinople" by Geoffroy de Villardouin. Approximately 1330 Vіllarduen was one of the kerіvniki in the campaign. Bibliothèque nationale de France Until the 10th century, the roads from Constantinople to Pivnichnoye Italiy across the Balkans and across the Danube were blocked by barbarian tribes. Having left the sea way alone, it hastened the chances of success and made cultural exchange more difficult. Podіl on Skhid ta Zakhіd becoming a physical reality. Ideological rozriv between Sunset and Descent, pіdzhivlyuvany protyazh Serednyovіchchya theological superechki, posilivsya pіd hour Khrestovyh marchіv. The organizer of the Fourth Crusade campaign, which ended with the capture of Constantinople in 1204, Pope Innokenty III vociferously declared the supremacy of the Roman Church over the reshtoy, relying on the divine establishment.
As a result, it turned out that the Byzantine people and the inhabitants of Europe knew little about one another, but they only made one to one unfriendly. In the XIV century, at Zakhod, they criticized the disparity of the Byzantine clergy and explained the successes of Islam with it. For example, Dante, having taken into account that Sultan Saladin could soon convert to Christianity (and remember to commemorate yoga at his “Divine Comedy” in Limbi, a special place for good non-Christians), but not having killed it through the unacceptability of Byzantine Christianity. At the western lands, at the hour of Dante, no one knows the Greek language. At the same time, the Byzantine intellectuals learned more Latin in order to transcribe Thomas Aquinas, and did not say anything about Dante. The situation changed in the 15th century after the Turkish flood and the fall of Constantinople, since the Byzantine culture began to penetrate to Europe at once from the Byzantine spirits, which flowed into the Turks. The Greeks brought with them a wealth of manuscripts of ancient works, and humanities took away the possibility of turning Greek antiquity after originals, and not after Roman literature, that poor Latin translations, which were brought to the Sunset.
Ale vchenih and intellectuals of the epoch Resurrection tsikavila classical antiquity, and not suspіlstvo, like її saved. In addition, on Zakhid they were mostly intellectuals, negatively laced with respect to the ideas of blackness and Orthodox theology of that hour and sympathized with the Roman Church; Their opponents, hoarders of Gregory Palamy, on the other hand, vowed that it would be better to try to stay at home with the Turks, and help the tat. That is why the Byzantine civilization continued to be accepted in a negative light. As the ancient Greeks and Romans were “their own”, then the image of Byzantium was fixed in the European culture, as similar and exotic, sometimes pleasurable, and most of all, soothsaying and alien to the European ideals of reason and progress.
Vіk evropejskoї osvіti vzagali zatavruvav Byzantium. The French educators Montesque and Voltaire associated it with despotism, luxury, food ceremonies, zabobons, moral discourse, civilizational zapapad and cultural bezplidnistyu. According to Voltaire's thought, the history of Byzantium is "a worthless collection of written phrases and descriptions of miracles", a kind of slander of the human mind. Montesque is to blame the main reason for the fall of Constantinople in the pernicious and all-pervasive influx of religion on the supremacy of that power. The clergy are especially aggressive about the Byzantine clergy, about the chanting of icons, and also about the theological controversy:
“Greeks - great balakunis, great rivals, sophistry for nature - gradually entered into religious superchicks. Shards of chants made a great influx at the court, which was weak in the world, like a wine roamed, then it turned out that chants and doors mutually roamed one of one and that evil infected both. As a result, all the respect of the emperors was tarnished by them, in order to either calm down or destroy the theological superchicks, which were marked, which stench became hotter for them, for which there was an insignificant reason that called out to them.
So Byzantium became a part of the image of the barbarian dark Gathering, which paradoxically included the head gates of the Byzantine Empire - Muslims. In the Orientalist model, Byzantium was opposed to the liberal and rational European society, based on the ideals of Ancient Greece and Rome. This model lies, for example, in the basis of the descriptions of the Byzantine court in the drama “The Speech of St. Anthony” by Gustave Flaubert:
“You wipe the king with a sleeve on the face of the aroma. Wine is from the sacred vessels, then we break them; and thoughts of rebuilding their ships, their troops, their people. At the same time, from the baganka of the vіn vіzme, that burn down your palace with the guests. I’m thinking of rebuilding the Babylonian tower and throwing it off the throne of the Most Vishish. Antony read from afar on yoga choli all his thoughts. The stinks of yogo, and the wine becomes Nebuchadnezzar.
A mythological look at Byzantium has not been completed to the end in historical science. Obviously, about the everyday moral application of Byzantine history for the development of youth and movie could not. The school programs were based on the classical antiquity of Greece and Rome, and the Byzantine culture was excluded from them. In Russia, science and enlightenment followed the zahadim signs. In the 19th century, a super story about the role of Byzantium for Russian history blew up among the zahіdniks and the words of the yanophiles. Petro Chaadaev, following the traditions of European enlightenment, spoke bluntly about the Byzantine recession of Russia:
“From the will of the fatal fate, we turned away for moral vengeance, as it is not enough to turn us, to the roaring Byzantium, to the subject of deep anger of these peoples.”
Ideologist of Byzantineism Kostyantin Leontiev Kostyantyn Leontiev(1831-1891) - diplomat, writer, philosopher. In 1875, the yogo robot "Byzantism and slov'yanstvo" was developed, in a way that "Byzantism" was a civilization or a culture, a "glorious idea" which is formed from a decade of warehouses: autocracy, Christianity "and roses"), rozcharuvannya in everything earthly, in the presence of "to the edge of a greater understanding of the earthly specialness of the human being", inspecting the hopes of the welfare of the peoples, the totality of such aesthetic manifestations and so on. Oskіlki vseslavіzm vzagalі not є tsivіlіzatsiєyu chi culture, but єvropeyska tsivіlіzаtsіya wіth wіth kіntsya, Russia, yak dwindled іn Vіzantії mіzhe everything, nebhіdnі for rokvіtu іѕ vyzantizm. showing on the stereotype of the statement about Byzantium, which developed through school education that non-self-sufficiency of Russian science:
“Byzantium seems to be dry, tedious, popivsky, and not less than tedious, but to make it seem stingy and pidlim.”
7. In 1453 Constantinople fell - but Byzantium did not die
Sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror. Miniature of collections of the Topkapi Palace. Istanbul, end XV cent. Wikimedia Commons In 1935, the book of the Romanian historian Nikolai Iorga "Byzantium after Byzantium" was published - and the name was established as a sign of the life of the Byzantine culture after the fall of the empire in 1453. Byzantine life and institutions did not appear at once. The stinks were taken away by the Byzantine emigrants, they flowed to Western Europe, near Constantinople itself, which they leaned on under the rule of the Turks, and also at the lands of the "Byzantine Union", like the British historian Dmitro Obolensky single culture, yakі recognized the direct injection of Byzantium. Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia, Rus'. Members of the supranational unity preserved the decay of Byzantium in religion, the norms of Roman law, standards of literature and art.
In the remaining hundred years of the founding of the empire, two factors - the cultural renewal of Paleologs and the Palamist superechki - merged, from one side, the renewal of the links between the Orthodox peoples and Byzantium, and from the last - a new splash of expansion of Byzantine black culture, us forwarded through the text literature. In the 14th century, Byzantine ideas, texts and navit їх the authors dragged down to the wordy svіtu through the town of Tirnov, the capital of the Bulgarian Empire; zokrema, the number of Byzantine creations available in Russia, succumbed to the Bulgarian translations.
In addition, the Ottoman Empire officially recognized the Patriarch of Constantinople: as the head of the Orthodox militia (or the community), having continued to serve the Church, Rus' and the Orthodox Balkan peoples were deprived of their jurisdiction. Zreshtoy, the rulers of the Danubian princedoms of Wallachia and Moldavia, having become the sultan’s followers, preserved the Christian sovereignty and respected the cultural and political decline of the Byzantine Empire. The stinks continued the tradition of the ceremonial of the royal court, the Greek illumination and theology, and they supported the Greek elite of Constantinople, the Phanariots. Phanarioti- literally "inhabitants of the Phanar", a quarter of Constantinople, where the residence of the Greek patriarch was located. The Greek elite of the Ottoman Empire were called Phanariots, because the stench lived most importantly near the quarter..
Gretsk rebelled in 1821. Illustration from the book by John Henry Wright. 1905 rik The Internet Archive Yorga vvazhaє, that Byzantium after Byzantium died at the hour of the recent rebellion against the Turks in 1821, as if organizing the fanariot Oleksandr Ipsilanti. From one side of the Ensign Ipsilantii, they wrote “Sim Peremozhі” and the image of Emperor Kostyantyn the Great, from whose name an ear of Byzantine history was tied, and from the other side - a phoenix, which vibrates from the half-moon, a symbol of the renaissance of Vіzantіy. The rebellion was crushed, the Patriarch of Constantinople was stratified, and the ideology of the Byzantine Empire of the latter was changed by Greek nationalism.
Change of statistics
BYZANTIAN EMPIRE, adopted in the historical science of the name of the power, which was named in 4 tbsp. on the territory of the lower part of the Roman Empire and starting until the middle of the 15th century. In the Middle Ages, the Empire of the Romans (Romans) was officially called. The economic, administrative and cultural center of the Byzantine Empire Buv Constantinople, far from roztashovaniya on the European and Asian provinces of the Roman Empire, the most important trade and strategic routes, land and sea.
The appearance of Byzantium as an independent state was prepared by the Roman Empire. Tse buv folded and trivaly process, which stretched out on the side. The cob of yoga sygaє the era of the crisis of the 3rd century, which laid the foundations of the Roman suspіlstva. The formation of Byzantium during the 4th century completed the era of the development of the ancient suspension, moreover, the tendencies to preserve the unity of the Roman Empire prevailed over the greater suspension. Process podіlu yshov povіlno and prihovano and culminating in 395 formal consecration of the mіstsі єsіnoії іmnіїі іmpії ї tvokh derzhаnі, kozhna na kolі zі sіїміміїміміїр. At that time, the difference of internal and external problems that faced similar and foreign provinces of the Roman Empire was clearly visible, which was rich in what was called their territorial separation. Half of the Roman Empire went to the warehouse of Byzantium, the line that passed from the western part of the Balkans to Cyrenaica. Vіdminnostі vіdbili th in spiritual life, in ideology, in the results of the 4th c. in both parts of the empire, different Christianity was firmly established for a long time (the entry of orthodox - Nicene, the Departure - Arianism).
Roztashovana on three continents - in Europe, Asia and Africa - Byzantium occupied an area of up to 1 ml square. The won included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, parts of Mesopotamia and Birmenia, the Mediterranean islands, near Crete and Cyprus, the main water in Crimea (Chersones), in the Caucasus (in Georgia), Mediterranean. The borders were drawn from the Danube to the Euphrates.
The new archeological material shows that the early Roman era did not, as it appeared earlier, be the era of a succulent stagnation. Byzantium has gone through the folding cycle of its development, and today’s successors are worthy of being able to talk about the elements of “economical renewal” by stretching its historical path. The rest includes the next steps:
4 - cob 7 tbsp. - Hour of transition from the edge of antiquity to the middle;
other half 7-12 tbsp. - Entry of Byzantium into the Middle Ages, molding into the empire of feudalism and other institutions;
13-first half of the 14th century - The era of the economic and political fall of Byzantium, which ended with the death of the state.
The development of agrarian vіdnosin in 4–7 st.
Densely populated areas of the former half of the Roman Empire with a long-standing and high agricultural culture have reached the warehouse of Byzantium. On the specifics of the development of agrarian vineyards, the situation was added, that the greater empire became mountainous regions with stony soil, and the native valleys were small, roses, which hid the establishment of the great territorial state single loneliness. In addition, historically, even during the hours of Greek colonization and far away, in the Hellenistic era, even all the accessories for the cultivation of the land appeared to be occupied by the territories of the ancient city-states. It all seemed to dominate the role of the middle slaves of the nobles, like the legacy, the power of the sovereign landowner and the saving of the significant ball of the other landed rulers, the communities of the villagers - the rulers of rich prosperity, the top of which became the deputy rulers. In the minds of the growth of the great land power was difficult. The war was formed from dozens, rarely hundreds of small and middle volodynias, territorially scattered, which did not take the molding of a single pomos state, similar to zahidnoy.
In the early Byzantine agrarian life, the rices of the early Byzantine agrarian life were taken from the Zahidnoy Roman Empire, it was saving money, the peasant farming, land power, the life of the community, and the great vag of the middle-bones of the earthly people Volodinnya. Byzantium had a more significant bula that sovereign land power. The role of the slave labor force and kindly prostezhuetsya behind the legislators of the 4th-6th centuries. Slaves were small local villagers, soldiers - veterans, landlords of the city - plebeians, municipal aristocracy - curials. Doslidniki impose slavery more important than the sovereign landowners. Indeed, the middle municipal landlords became the largest ball of the possible slaves, and the middle villa was madly, slave-like for its character. As a rule, the middle landowner of the city, lying one maєtok near the mіskom okruzі, often before that, the zamіska budinok and one or more of the dribnіsh pіdmіїskih states, prostіїv, which were stored at their suupnosti suburban, wide stepping stone from the ancient city, ilsk district, territory - chorus. Maetok (villa) sing by the state to achieve significant rosemaries, shards of wine, bearing a multicultural character, having provided the basic needs of the city’s house. At the maetok, lands also came in, as the colony-haired men made it, which they brought a penny income to the landowner, or a product that was for sale.
Nemaє pіdstav rebіlshuvati rіvіn zanepadu sovereign zemstvodіnnya prinaimnі until 5th c. At that hour, there was little fringing of the curia lanes, which would tell about the stability of their camps. Less at 5 tbsp. Kurials were fenced to sell their villagers slaves (mancipia rustica). In the lower regions (in the Balkans) up to 5 st. the growth of the middle slave villas continued. As the archeological material shows, the state government was a blessing in disguise under the hour of the invasion of the barbarians of the 4th–5th century.
The growth of the great maetkiv (fundi) went beyond the cloak of the earthenware of the middle villas. What led to a change in the nature of the state? Archaeological material shows that in a number of regions of the empire, great slave-holding villas were saved until the end of the 6th-7th century. The documents have the end of 4 tbsp. on the lands of the great Vlasniks, the strong servants are shaking. Law kintsa 5 tbsp. to talk about slaves and colonies about the slaves planted on the land, about the slaves on the pekulії, then, maybe, not about changing their status, but about the throat of the sovereign pansky state. Laws about the slave status of children of slaves show that the main mass of slaves was “reintroduced”, and that there was no active trend before the survival of slavery. A similar picture is mi Bachimo and in the "new" church and monastic landowning, which was rapidly developing.
The process of development of the great landownership is accompanied by the flourishing of the sovereign state of the pans. It was stimulated by natural minds, by the very nature of the formation of great land power, which included a mass of other territorially scattered volodins, the number of which sometimes reached many hundreds, with sufficient independence of the exchange of the district and the city, commodity-penny vodnosin, which gave them the opportunity to emigrate Financial payments. For the Byzantine great maetku, the growth of the yogi was more peaceful, lower zahіdny, characteristically the throat of the sovereign pansky state. Pan's sadiba from the center of the statehood became more and more transformed into the center of exploitation of the most important states, the collection and greater processing of products that came from them. That is characteristic of the evolution of the agrarian life of early Byzantium in the world in the fall of the middle and other slave states, the main type of settlement is the village, inhabited by slaves and columns (coma).
The unique feature of the ancient free landed land in early Byzantium was not just the appearance of the mass of ancient strong land vlasniks, who were founded at Sunset, but also those who were united by the villagers in the community. For the obviousness of a different type of community, which was dominated by the bula of the mitrocomia, which was formed from the susіdіv, which were small in the communal lands, which led to the common land power, which the fellow villagers victorious or were rented out. Mitrokomiya zdіysnyuvala nebhіdnі svіlnі works, small of its elders, yakі looked after the lord's life of the village and kept order. The stinkers took tribute, lashed the vikonanny duties.
The presence of the community - one of the most important features, marked the originality of the transition of early Byzantium to feudalism, its own community has a unique specificity. On the vіdmіnu vіd near koskhіdnoї, early zantine vіlna community was formed from the villagers - full-fledged rulers in their own land. Vaughn went through a trivalent path to development in the lands of the region. The number of inhabitants of such a community was 1–1.5 thousand. osіb (“great and richly populated villages”). Vaughn is small of the elements of her craft and traditional internal furnishing.
The originality of the development of the colony in early Byzantium was due to the fact that the number of colonies here grew mainly not for the work of planting slaves on the land, but was replenished by the old land lords - orendars and villagers. The process proceeded properly. During the protracted period of the early Zantine epoch, not only a significant ball of community members-Vlasniks was saved, but columnar blues in their most solid forms were molded up. As soon as you entered the “individual” patronage, having obtained the inclusion of a shvidny landowner into the structure of a maєtka, then Byzantine villagers for a long time defended their rights to land and special freedom. The sovereign attachment of the peasants to the earth, the development of a kind of "sovereign colony" was ensured by the trival hour of the re-importation of more soft forms of fallow land - the so-called "free colony" (coloni liberi). Thus, the colonies saved a part of their power and, as they were especially free, small rights were given.
The state could win over in its interests the internal crowding of the community, its organization. At 5 st. vono zaprovadzhuє the right to protimesis - the best purchase of rural land by fellow villagers, strengthening the collective viability of the huge amount of taxes. And those who, even in the final meeting, witnessed the process of ruining the free villagers, who, having gained strength, degraded the camp, but at the same time helped to save the community.
Scho expanded from the end of 4 tbsp. the transition of the tsilih forces under the patronage of the great private vlasniks also infused the specifics of the great early zantine maetka. In the world of ancient and middle Volodya, the village became the main center of the government, it led to the internal government consolidation. Obviously, let's not just talk about the savings of the community on the lands of the great rulers, but also about the "regeneration" after the settlements of many other and middle states, which were squandered into fallow land. The masses of the significant world were swept away by the invading barbarians. So it was in the Balkans in the 5th century. the great fortified villages of colonies (vici) came to replace the old villas. In this manner, in the early Zantine minds, the growth of the great earth-volunteer was accompanied by the expansion of the forces of that szmіtsnennya silskogo gospodarstva, and not by the mass. Archaeological material confirms not only a multiplicity of forces, but also the emergence of a strong life - the sprouting of systems of growth, wells, cisterns, oil and grape presses. It was possible to create an increase in the number of the rural population.
Stagnation and the beginning of the fall of the Byzantine village, for the tribute of archeology, sit the rest of the decade of the 5th - beginning of the 6th century. Chronologically, this process develops with the appearance of more complex forms of colonies - the category of "assigned colonies" - adscripts, enapographs. They became a lot of practitioners of the maetka, planted and planted the land of slaves, free colonies, yak spent their lane from the strengthening of the tax burden. The ascribed colonies no longer lacked wet land, often the stench did not reduce their home that state - thinness, inventory. Everything became the authority of the pan, and the stench changed on the “slave of the earth”, written down by the qualifications maetka, attached to the new and to the person of the pan. Such a buv is the result of the evolution of a significant part of the free columns of the 5th century, which called for an increase in the number of columns-adscriptions. You can talk about those, what a world in the ruins of a rural rural village is a small power, an increase in sovereign taxes and duties, but a sufficient number of data shows that the great land rulers for the sake of greater incomes transformed the columns into quasi-slaves, st. The legislation of Justinian, for the sake of the total contraction of sovereign taxes, tried to encircle the growth of requisitions and duties for the greed of the pans. But the most important ones were those that neither the rulers nor the state failed to establish the right of the colonies on the earth, on their sovereignty.
We can also state that at the turn of 5–6 tbsp. the path of the far-flung zmіtsnennya of the small peasant state was closed. As a result of this, the Gospodarsky slump of the village, which had begun, was short-lived, the number of the rural population ceased to grow, the villagers began to flow out of the land and, naturally, the growth of zanedbany and empty lands (agri deserti) began to grow. Imperator Justinian bachiv at the distribution of land to churches and monasteries is right not only pleasing to God, but also korisnu. True, as in 4–5 tbsp. the growth of the church land power and monasteries was given for the gift of rahunok and in the form of rich land vlasniks, then at 6 tbsp. more and more often, the state itself began to transfer small profits to the monasteries, repaying what you can do better than their vikoristati. Burkhlive rostannia, 6th c. church and monastic landowners, as if they were slandering up to 1/10 of all territories that were shattered (which in its time gave rise to the theory of “monastic feudalism”), being a direct reflection of the changes that were in the position of the Byzantine village. Stretching the first half 6 tbsp. Significant part of it was already becoming adscripts, in which more and more part of the old land vlasniks were being transformed, which had been saved up to that hour. 6 art. - the hour of the greatest ruin, the hour of the residual fall of the middle municipal landfall, like Justinian trying to save the fences of the curial lanes. Іz the middle of 6 tbsp. the order appeared to be embarrassed by the grandfathers, often raising the arrears of the agricultural population, fixing the desolation of the lands that are being strengthened, and the shortfall of the rural population. Probably another half of the 6th c. - The hour of rapid growth of the great land power. As showing the archeological material of the low districts, the great svіtskі and the church and monastic volodynnia near the 6th century. grown vdvіchі, yakshcho not vtrychі. Widely expanded on the sovereign lands, emfіtevsis is a perpetually falling rent on the pіlgovykh minds, due to the necessary contribution of significant forces and zasobіv to support the cultivation of the earth. Emfіtevsіs becoming a form of expansion of the great private agriculture. On the thought of a number of doslidnikiv, the peasant statehood and the entire agrarian economy of early Byzantium, stretching 6 tbsp. spent building up to development. In this way, the result of the evolution of agrarian vineyards in the early Zantine village of Buv її gospodarsky zanepad, which is known to be manifested in the weakened links of the village with the city, the incremental development of a more primitive, and less vitreous, strong-construction, strength, lazy villages in the city.
Gospodarsky zanepad was recognized and on a maєtka. In the wake of a sharply short period of drіbnoi, zokrema of the rural-gromadian land power, in fact, the old ancient land power was born. The colony of the early Byzantium became a pan_vnoy form of fallow land of the villagers. The norms of columnar vіdnosin were broadened on the basis of the powers of the other land vlasniks, as they became another category of farmers. The greater zhorstka stalemate of slaves and adscripts, with its blackness, poured into the camp a mass of colonies. Appearance among the early Byzantine land lords, free villagers, united in the community, trival and mass foundation of the category of free colonies, tobto. more soft forms of colonial fallow land, which did not create minds for the direct transformation of columnar waters in feudal fallow land. The Byzantine certificate confirms that the colony is typical of a typical ancient form of fallow land, tied to the laying of slave-haired vіdnosins, a transitional form and doomed to sign. The current historiography marks a new liquidation of the colony in the 7th century, tobto. Vіn did not immediately get stuck on the molding of feudal vіdnosin in Byzantium.
Location.
Feudal prosperity, like in antiquity, was based on its agrarian economy, and the agrarian economy gave an initial impact on the development of the Byzantine city. In the early Zantine epoch, Byzantium from її 900–1200 mіsta-polyses, which often stood one in one for 15–20 km, equally from Western Europe looked like “the edge of the city”. But it’s hardly possible to talk about the prosperity of the city and the development of the rozkvіt of mіskogo life in Byzantium 4–6 st. against the front centuries. Ale those who had a sharp turn in the development of the early Zantine city, there was no more like 6 - on the cob 7 tbsp. - Undoubtedly. Vіn zbіgsa z attacks zvnіshnіh gorіv, vtratoi partіnі іzantіyskih territorіy, vtornennіm pіzantіy naselenija, - tse gave the opportunity to a number of successors to ascribe zanepad mіst vplivu suto zvіsnіshnіh faktorіv, scho for two centuries received good numbers. Zrozumіlo, no one can imagine the grandiose real injection of the destruction of the wealthy place in the wild development of Byzantium, but meritorious for the right respect and internal trends in the development of the early Zantine city of 4–6 st.
The greater stability, lower of the Roman city, is explained by the low furnishing. Among them - a smaller development of the great magnate states, which were molded in the minds of their natural isolation, which will be strengthened by the savings in the similar provinces of the empires of the middle land lords and the ancient Mist landowners, as well as the masses of the rural peasantry. This made it possible to save a wide market for the local crafts, and to create the role of the seller-intermediary in the post-working place. On the basis of this savings, make a significant contribution of the trade and craft population, which unite for professions in dozens of corporations and add up to no less than 10% of the total number of townspeople. Small places are small, ring out, 1.5–2 thousand. inhabitants, average - up to 10 thousand, and more - a few dozen thousand, an hour over 100 thousand. In the whole city, the population became up to 1/4 of the population.
Stretch 4–5 tbsp. The places took care of the main land power, which ensured the income of the mass of the masses and, in addition to other needs, gave the opportunity to improve the life of the city and put it in order. An important clerk was those who under the authority of the city, the mіskoї kurії bula was a significant part of the yogo rural district. So, as soon as the economic twilight of the city came before the pauperization of the Russian population, which made them fall into the hands of the Russian nobility, then the Byzantine city of trade and craftsmanship was more numerous and more independent.
The growth of the great land power, the slaughter of the masses of the masses and the Kurials still robbed their right. For example, 4 tbsp. the rhetorician Livan wrote that the deaks of the ancient places become “similar to the villages”, and the historian Theodoret Kirrsky (5th century) shkoduvav, that the stench is not in the air to take up the huge bulk of disputes and “spend” among their inhabitants. Ale, in early Byzantium, this process proceeded quite well, even if it was not easy.
As in other places in the middle of the days of the municipal aristocracy, the links with the internal imperial market weakened, then the great growth of the great land power in the years before the present day, the resettlement of wealthy landowners, merchants and remіnіv. At 4-5 st. the great city centers are experiencing it because of what the empire ruled and perebudova took down, which was the result of destruction, which was brought into the ancient suspense. The number of provinces multiplied (64), and the state administration was placed in the capitals. Bagato and their capitals became the centers of local military administration, in some places - important centers of defense, deployment of garrisons and great religious centers - the capitals of metropolitan cities. As a rule, at 4-5 tbsp. there was an intense life in them (Lebanon wrote in the 4th century about Antioch: “everything is in the future”), their population multiplied, creating a singing world the illusion of a wild prosperity of the city and the human life.
Next, designate the growth of one more type of place - seaside port centers. There, wherever it was possible, Daedal and more provincial capitals moved to seaside towns. Zovni process, nachebto, intensifying trade exchange. However, it is true that the development of sea transportation, cheap and safe, was in the minds of a weakened, zanepad razgaluzhennoy system of internal land routes.
A kind of manifestation of the "naturalization" of the state and the economy of early Byzantium, becoming a development of sovereign commodities, which are recognized as providing for the needs of the state. Such virobnitstva also concentrated more importantly near the capital and the largest places.
The turning point at the development of a small Byzantine city, perhaps, was another half - the end of the fifth century. At the same time, the epoch of crisis began to grow small places, they began to spend their significance as centers of crafts and trade in their districts, they became “vishtovhuvati” for the trade and crafts population. Those who appeared to be immushenim at 498 to pay the main trade and thrift taxes - hrisargir, were important for a penny deposit to the treasury, were neither vipadkovistyu, nor an indicator of the growth of the goodness of the empire, but spoke of the mass tooth-feeding of the trade and belt population. As if writing a contemporary story, the inhabitants of the towns, oppressed by the vlasnoy zlydnyami and the grips of power, led a life "zhalugidne and hard." One of the ways in which the process, perhaps, and starting from 5 tbsp. Massive sight of city dwellers near the monastery, growth of a large number of Moscow monasteries, near the tamans of the 5th–6th centuries. Possibly, it’s about those that in some small places the blackness became from 1/4 to 1/3 of the current population, it was oversized, there were dozens of small monasteries in Moscow and the primordial monasteries, the absence of churches and church establishments, such an overpopulation the fall was small.
The position of the peasantry, other and middle mіsk vlasnikіv in the 6th century. did not improve, as they became mainly adscripts, the free colonies and peasants, plundered by the power and rulers of the earth, did not renew a number of buyers on the Moscow market. The number of wandering, migrating craftsman population grew. We do not know how the peasant population from the hirilih places to the village, but in the other half of the 6th century, the growth of the navkolishnih places of the great settlements, villages, burgivs intensifies. This process is typical for the previous eras, but the character has changed. As in the past, it was connected with the settlements of the exchange between the city and the district, zmіtsnennym the role of the Mіs'kogo virobnitstv and the market, and so the settlements were a kind of trading outposts of the city, then now the present day was a little crazy. At the same time, the districts were cremated with the help of the districts for their exchange with the cities.
Pidyom of the early Zantine great places in the 4th–5th century. also rich in why mav structural-stage character. Archaeological material visually paints a picture of a real fracture at the development of the great Early Zantine city. Nasampered, it shows the process of stepwise growth of the main polarization of the Mist population, which is confirmed by the data about the growth of the great land power and the rise of the ball of the middle Mist rulers. Archaeologically, it is important to know the viraz at the step by step identification of the quarters of the possible population. From one side, you can clearly see the rich quarters of the palaces-sadib of the nobility, from the other side - the crowds that occupied the Daedals most of the territory of the city. The influx of the trade and crafts population from small places has only mitigated the situation. Obviously, from the end of the 5th cob 6 tbsp. you can talk about the loss of the masses of the trade and crafts population in the localities. Partly tsim, mabut, bulo viklikano attached 6th c. intensive life for most of them.
For great places, there were more factors that supported their foundation. The protest of pauperization of their population was illustrating both the economic and social situation. Prosperous were less luxury items, food merchants, merchants and likhvars were great. In the great early Zantine city of the yogo population, the Daedalus more advanced under the intercession of the church, and the rest of the Daedalus was more advanced in the economy.
p align="justify"> Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, occupies a special place in the history of the Byzantine city. New additions have changed the lucid role of Constantinople, amended the legends about the early history of the Byzantine capital. Nasampered, Emperor Kostyantin, storming the unity of the empire, not mav to create Constantinople as "another Rome" as "the new Christian capital of the empire." Away, the transformation of the Byzantine capital into a gigantic supercity was the result of the socio-economic and political development of similar provinces.
Early Byzantine sovereignty was the remaining form of ancient sovereignty, the result of development. Polis - municipality until the end of antiquity continued to become the basis of social and administrative, political and cultural life of society. The bureaucratic organization of the ancient society was formed in the process of laying out the main socio-political center - the polis, and in the process of its formation it recognized the influx of socio-political traditions of the ancient society, which gave it to the bureaucracy and political special institutions. The very same environment, which the Roman regime dominated as a result of the rich development of forms of Greco-Roman sovereignty, gave it its own identity, which did not bring it closer to the traditional forms of apostate despotism, nor to the possible middle, sovereign state.
The power of the Byzantine emperor was the power of a deity, like in similar monarchs. Vaughn was the power of "God's mercy", but not exclusively like that. Although it was consecrated by God, in early Byzantium it was not seen as divinely sanctioned by the personal sovereignty, but it was not surrounded, but transferred to the emperor the power of the Senate of the Roman people. Zvіdsi th practice of "civil" deception of the skin emperor. The Byzantine people invariably respected themselves as "Romans", Romans, keepers of the Roman sovereign-political traditions, and the state - Roman, Roman. Those who by Byzantium did not establish the decline of the imperial power, and the vibrancy of the emperors was saved until the end of the foundation of Byzantium, so should be attributed not to Roman zvichay, but to the influx of new social minds, class non-polarization of the 8-9 style. For pіznioantichnoї derzhavnosti was more typical for the rule of the sovereign bureaucracy and police self-regulation.
Characteristic of the rice of the tsієї epoch became educated to participate in the self-regulation of independent vlasniks, officials at the representatives (honorati), the clergy. At once, from the top of the curial stench, they became a kind of official collegium, a committee that, standing above the curia, was responsible for the functioning of the other monastic institutions. Bishop used to be a "protector" of the place not just through his church functions. His role in the early antique and early Zantine city was especially special: he was recognized as the protector of the mystical community, as an official representative before the state and bureaucratic administration. At this camp, the obov'yazkakh showed a blatant policy of the state and the support of a place. Turbota about the prosperity and prosperity of the city was recited as one of the most important tasks of the state. Obov'yazkom early Zantine emperors were "philopolises" - "favorite places", won expanded and the imperial administration. In this way, one can speak not only about the support of the power of the surplus of the police self-regulation, but also about the direct orientation in the whole policy of the early Zantine power, її “urban centrism”.
With the transition to the early middle age, the policy of the state is changing. From the "urban-centric" - the ancient antiquity will be transformed into a new, purely "territorial" one. The empire, like an ancient federation of the cities from the territories under it, died residually. In the system of the state, the place appeared to be surviving from the village within the framework of the outspoken territorial subdivision of the empire on the agricultural and municipal administrative-taxable districts.
At a glance, I can look at the evolution of the church organization. There are still not enough food items, like bindings for the early Byzantine era, the municipal functions of the church in the Vedmerli. Ale no doubt, that from the saving functions they spent their link from the working community of the city, became an independent function of the church itself. In this way, the church organization, having torn up the remnants of a huge fallow in the antique-polisnoe structure, became an independent, territorially organized one within the eparchy. The fall of the city, obviously, has been taken by a significant world.
Vidpovіdno all tse knew vіdobrazhennya th in specific forms of state-church organization and its functioning. The emperor was an irreplaceable ruler - the supreme legislator of that head of vikonavchoi rule, the supreme commander-in-chief of that judge, the supreme appellate authority, the protector of that church, as such, "the earthly leader of the Christian people." Recognizing that zmіschuvav usіh posadovyh osіb and moment z usіkh nutrition accept the same decision. The Derzhavna Rada is a consistory, which is made up of a great number of townships, and the Senate is a body of representation and defense of the interests of the senatorial camp, small doradchi, advisory functions. The tendrils of control converged at the palace. The pictorial ceremonial was highly elevated in imperial power and crowned the yogo in the eyes of the rich piddanikh - mere mortals. They were afraid of the singing of the risi of the imperial power. Being "living by the law", the emperor is guilty of acquiring the fundamental right. Vіn mіg priymat odnosіbnі іshennya, аlе s іn main nutrition аlѕо аlѕо аrе іn thеіr radniks, аnd th senate, senators. Vіn buv goiter, listen to the vision of the three "constitutional forces" - the Senate, the army and the "people", who are counted to the exaltation of that obrannya іmperatorіv. On this basis, the Russian parties were a real political force in early Byzantium, and often when the emperors were chosen, the minds were imposed, and the stench of the goiter was finished. The protyag of the early anti-Zantine doby was absolutely dominated by the bulky side of the front. The consecration of the vlady, porivnya z obrannyam, little іstotnogo value. The role of the church was considered by the singing world within the framework of the manifestations of the sovereign cult.
At the same time, services were divided into the court (palatina), civil (militia) and military (militia armata). The Viysk administration and command were established as civilized, and the early Zantine emperors, formally the supreme commander-in-chief, actually ceased to be generals. The head of the empire was civilized management, military activity was ordered to you. To that, the leading figures, after the emperor, in the administration of that ієrarchy were two prefects of the praetorium - the "vice-king", as they stood on the choir of the entire public administration and gave the administrations of the provinces, towns, the collection of taxes, functions, and full duties scyakh, safe delivery of the army , the court then. Known in the early medieval Byzantium as a provincial underworld, and the most important departments of the prefects, no doubt, testify about the fundamental transformation of the entire system of government. The early Zantine army was often equipped with a set of recruits (konskriptsiya), a little more, it became more hired - from the inhabitants of the empire and the barbarians. Її postachannya that ozbroєnnya was taken care of by civil authorities. The end of the early Zantine epoch and the beginning of the early middle epoch were marked by the new re-budding military organization. Kolishnіy sent the army to the frontier, stashed in the frontier districts and under the command of the duksiv, and to the mobile, stashed the places of the empire, it was sacked.
The 38th reign of Justinian (527-565) was a turning point in early Zantine history. Having come to power in the minds of the social crisis, the emperor began to try to forcibly establish the religious unity of the empire. The Reformation of Nika (532) - a unique and watery hour characteristic of the early Zantine era, broke off the reformist policy with the form of roc. In the new one, all the tension of the social networks near the country was focused. The rebellion was zhorstoko strangled. Justinian initiated a series of administrative reforms. From the Roman legislation, they adopted low standards, having affirmed the principle of the inviolability of private authority. The star of Justinian formed the basis of the far-flung Byzantine legislation, having adopted the fact that Byzantium would be deprived of a “legal power”, in some authority and power the law played a great role, and they put it on the jurisprudence of the entire middle Europe. In the whole ninth epoch of Justinian, the chiba sho pidbila pidbags, synthesized tendencies of the front development. Vіdomy istorik G.L. For 32 out of 38 years, the rule of Justinian Byzantium led vicious wars - near Pivnichniy Africa, Italy, and Iran; in the Balkans, he had a chance to beat the pressure of guns and words, and Justinian’s hopes for stabilizing the foundation of the empire ended in failure.
Vіdomih svіhіv zmіtsnіnі tsentralї vlady Іraklіy (610–641). Truthfully, the skhіdnі provіntsії z іn important non-Greek populations were spent, and now yоgo vlada was arguing more importantly on the Greek chi ellіnіzovanі territorії. Irakliy having accepted the ancient Greek title "basileus" as a substitute for the Latin "emperor". The status of the emperor of the empire did not arise from the idea of the electiveness of the sovereign, as a representative of the interests of all subjects, as the head office in the empire (magistrate). The emperor became a middle-class monarch. At once, the transfer of the entire sovereign right-and the judiciary from the Latin Greek language was made. The hard ovnіshnyopolіtichne stasis of the empire did not allow the concentration of power in the missions, and the “principle of subdivision” of power became to leave the political arena. Radical changes began in the structures of the provincial government, changed between the provinces, all the power of the military and hromadyanska was now handed over to the emperors to the namіsnik - the strategist (commander). The strategist took away the power over the judges and the officials of the fisku of the province, and the province itself began to be called "thema" (earlier it was the name of the zagin of the mystic military).
In a folded military environment 7 tbsp. the role of the army was steadily growing. In the course of the formation of the femme mode, the hiring of the military has spent its own meaning. Femny way rushing to the village, the free peasants-strategists became the head military force of the country. The stinks were listed to the stratum lists-catalogues, they took away the penny privileges along with taxes and duties. Behind them, land plots were fixed, as if they were not familiar, but they could be transferred from the recesses for the sake of continuing military service. With the expansion of the theme system, the establishment of the empire in the provinces has accelerated. In the meantime, the peasantry was transformed into paid treasuries, into warriors of the thematic militia. The state, as if meeting the state's need for pennies, was rich in what it was like to oblige to trim the army, wanting the stratioti to take away a single payment.
The first families came to Asia Minor (Opsiky, Anatolik, Armenianak). Z kintsa 7 on the cob 9 c. the stench settled in the Balkans: Thrace, Hellas, Macedonia, Peloponnese, and also, maybe, Thessalonica-Dirrach. Henceforth, Asia Minor became the "Koliska of the Middle Byzantium". Here, in the minds of the city of the Soviet Union, the need for us was formed and took shape in a feminine way, a stratovotsky village camp was born, which marked and raised the suspense-political significance of the village. For example, 7–8 st. tens of thousands of rooted by the power and voluntarily words of the Jansk families who were rooted, were resettled to the pivnіchny zahіd of Asia Minor (near Bithynia), endowed with land on the minds of carrying out the military service, they were labored as payers of the skarbnitsa. As the main territorial developments of families, the dedalics more clearly appear in the Viysk districts, prisons, and not in the provincial cities, like before. In Asia Minor among the feminist commanders, the future feudal pan-class of Byzantium began to take shape. In the middle of the 9th c. the feminine way has established itself on the entire territory of the empire. The new organization of the military forces and that administration allowed the empire to beat the onslaught of the enemies and go to the turn of the wasted lands.
Ale, a feminine way, as it appeared later, there was no security for the central government: the strategists, who knew the greatness of the government, tried to hinder the control of the center. The stench led to fight wars one by one. Therefore, the emperors began to crush the great families, calling out the dissatisfaction of the strategists, on the crest of the strategist of the family Anatolik Leo III Isaur (717-741).
Leo III to those other emperors-iconoclasts, who, having overcome the tendencies in the center, for a long time to remake the church and the administrative system of thematic administration on the support of their throne, lay the wine-glass in the imperial power. The stench, nasampered, reproached the Church with their spitting, having entrusted themselves with the right to have a great voice for the hour of electing a patriarch and adopting the most important church dogmas at ecumenical councils. Nepokіrnyh patriarchs were thrown off, sent away, and the throne was spared by the Roman monastics, until they stumbled from the middle of the 8th century under the protectorate of the Frankish state. Iconoclasm smashed its contribution to the discord from Zakhod, serving as a tie-in for future drama under the church. The emperor-iconoclasts revived and celebrated the cult of the imperial power. The same cycle was revisited by the policy of the renewal of the Roman judiciary and the resurrection, having survived a deep storm in the 7th century. Roman law. Ekloga (726) sharply raised the viability of officials before the law and power and set up a stratum for any kind of ledge against the emperor and power.
In the rest of the quarter of 8 tbsp. The main goals of iconoclasm were achieved: the establishment of the material camp of the opposition clergy, the many lands and lands were confiscated, the rich monasteries were closed, the great centers of separatism were destroyed, the femna nobility was ordered to the throne. Earlier, the strategists were trying to maintain the independence of Constantinople, and in such a way the conflict between the two main groups of the noble class, the military aristocracy and the hromada power for political superiority was blamed. As appoints the successor of Byzantium G.G. Litavrin, “it was the struggle for two different ways to develop feudal monies: the metropolitan bureaucracy, which was in charge of the treasury, strayed from the borders of the growth of the great landowner, helped the tax gnat, then yak gained the nobility strong man development of private forms of exploitation. The super-nation of “commanders” and “bureaucracy” stand on the centenary of the inner political life of the empire…”.
The iconoclastic policy spent its vehemence in another quarter of the 9th century, throwing away a further conflict from the church, threatening the weakened position of the noble class. In 812–823 Constantinople was besieged by the usurper Khoma the Slovyanin, honored by the icon-shakers, deyak strategists of Asia Minor and part of the words in the Balkans. The rebellion was strangled, it sounded piercingly on the right-wingers of the stake. The VII Ecumenical Council (787) condemned iconoclasm, and 843 icon veneration was renewed, overcame the centralization of power. Chimalo strength vimagala and struggle with the addicts of the dualistic Paulician heresy. At the gathering of Asia Minor, the stench created their own state with the center near the city of Tefrika. In 879, the place was taken by the ranks of the military.
Byzantium in the other half of the 9th–11th centuries
The increase in the power of the imperial power zoomed in on the development of feudal wealth in Byzantium, obviously, the nature of the political system. For three centuries, centralized exploitation has become the main source of income. The service of the villagers-strategists at the femme militia for two centuries was deprived of the foundation of the military power of Byzantium.
The onset of mature feudalism dates back to the end of the 11th century and at the turn of the 11th-12th century. The formation of a great private landownership sat a friend for half of the 9th–10th centuries, the process of the destruction of the villagers began to grow in the neuroscientific fates of 927/928. The villagers went bankrupt and sold their land for nothing to the dinats, who became their rulers as peruks. The mustache drastically changed the income of the fiscus, weakened the militia femme. From 920 to 1020 rubles The emperors, who were forced to massive changes in income, saw a series of decrees-novels against the peasants of the landlords. They look like "legislation of the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty (867-1056)". The villagers were given the right to buy land. Let's change the legislation a little on account of the interests of the treasury. The community members of the same village were small enough to pay tribute (by mutual guarantee) for leaving the village houses. The deserted lands of the communities were blown out and were given to rent.
11–12 st.
There are differences between different categories of peasants. From the middle of 11 st. growing intelligent landowner. More 10 st. The emperors swayed the secular and spiritual nobility with the so-called “non-eternal rights”, as if they were claiming the transfer of the right to the collection of sovereign tributes from the singing territory for the establishment of the term chi dovichno. Tsi pozhaluvannya were called salts and pronni. Pronії passed at 11 tbsp. bearing from the side of their obedient military service to the greed of the state. At 12 st. Pronya shows a trend until the transformation to the recession, and then the insane power.
In the lower regions of Asia Minor, on the eve of the IV Khrest campaign, complexes of great volodynias, practically independent of the views of Constantinople, were formed. The formalization of the patrimony, that buv її the main privileges, came from Byzantium at an increasing pace. The submissive immunity seemed to be like a grapevine, the empire did not develop a hierarchy of land power, did not develop that system of vassal-special vines.
Location.
The new rise of the Byzantine cities reached its apogee in the 10th–12th centuries (century), moreover, the capital Constantinople, and the other provincial cities - Nicaea, Smyrna, Ephesus, Trebizond were swept away. Byzantine merchants ignited a wide international trade. The craftsmen of the capital held great zamovlennia in the presence of the imperial palace, the great clergy, bureaucrats. At 10 st. the misc statute was drafted - Book of the Eparch. Vaughn regulated the activities of the main craftsmen and trading corporations.
The permanent involvement of the state in the activities of corporations has become a galm of their distant development. A particularly severe blow to the Byzantine craft and trade caused unbearably high taxes and taxes from the trade of the Italian republics. Signs of the fall appeared at Constantinople: the economy of the Italians grew stronger in yoga. Until the end of 12 Art. the very supply of food to the capital of the empire appeared to be more important in the hands of Italian merchants. In provincial places, competition was weak, but such places were more likely to squander the power of the great feudal lords.
Middle Byzantine state
formed in the most important rices like a feudal monarchy on the cob of the 10th century. under Leo VI the Wise (886–912) and Kostyantin II Porphyrogenitus (913–959). In the reign of the emperors of the Macedonian dynasty (867-1025), the empire reached supra-gender power, which they did not know in the least.
Z 9 Art. The first active contacts of Kievan Rus with Byzantium are established. Starting from 860 r. the stench stole the installation of stable trading notes. Imovirno, at that hour lie the cob of the Christianization of Russia. Contracts 907-911 paved the way for her to the Constantinople market. In 946, the embassy of Princess Olga came to Constantinople, it played a role in the development of trade-penny money and the expansion of Christianity in Russia. Prote for Prince Svyatoslav, the active trade and political victories were replaced by a tribal swarm of military conflicts. Svyatoslav did not get far enough to settle on the Danube, but far and wide, Byzantium continued to trade with Russia and repeatedly went to the її її її її її їskovoї ї podpomogi. The last of these contacts became the court of Annie, the sister of the Byzantine Emperor Vasil II, with Prince Volodymyr, who completed the adoption of Christianity by the sovereign religion of Russia (988/989). Tsya pod_ya brought Rus' to the lavas of the largest Christian powers of Europe. In Russia, the word-Janian writing expanded, theological books were imported, objects of worship, too. The economic and church connections of Byzantium and Russia continued to develop and grow in the 11th–12th centuries.
At the ruling dynasty of Komnіnov (1081-1185) on the occasion of the new timchas of the Byzantine state. The Komnіni gained great victories over the Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor and led an active policy in Zakhodі. The twilight of the Byzantine state was clearly manifested only in the 12th century.
Organization of state administration and management of the empire about 10 - ser. 12 st. also recognized serious changes. There was an active adherence to the norms of Justinian law to new minds (selections Isagoga, Prochiron, Vasiliki and the appearance of new laws.) Synclite, or glad to the great nobility under Basileus, genetically closely related to the Roman Senate, but a blaze of rumors to the omnipotent lords.
The formation of the personnel of the most important administrative bodies was appointed by the will of the emperor. For Lev VI, the bula was brought into the system of the hierarchy of ranks and titles. Vaughn served as one of the most important important settlements of the imperial power.
The power of the emperor was already not without borders, often even more German. In a farther way, there was a bula of spadkovo; deified the imperial throne, the seat of basileus at the suspenst, yogo rank, but not the yogo specialty and dynasty itself. In Byzantium, having established itself early, sound right: the ruling basileus hurried for life to crown the fall. In another way, the power of the Timchas rulers was embarrassed by the administration in the center and on the streets. Falling the authority of the strategist. Znovu vіdbuvavsya podіl viyskoї and hromadyanskoy vlady. Golovuvannya in the provinces passed to the court praetor, the strategists became the heads of the ancient fortifications, representing the head of the tagmi - the corral of professional hires. Ale naprikintsi 12 tbsp. more important prosharok of the free villagers, step by step, changes were made in the army.
Nicephorus II Phocas (963-969) saw from the masses of the strategists I would be able to top, having formed an important cavalry. Mensh zamozhnі povinnі buli serve in the infantry, in the navy, in the convoy. Z 11 Art. the obov'yazok of the special service was replaced by a penny compensation. On otrimani koshti, hired a viysko. Captured the fleet of the army. The empire began to fall into the hands of the fleet of the Italians.
The camp of right in the army caused the ups and downs of the political struggle in the middle of the noble class. Z kintsa 10 tbsp. the commanders jumped to take power from the oppressed bureaucracy. Occasionally, representatives of the Viysk grouping sacked power in the middle of the 11th century. In 1081, the rebellious commander Oleksiy I Komnin (1081-1118) took the throne.
For whom the era of bureaucratic nobility ended, the process of formalizing the closed camp of the largest feudal lords was completed. The main social support of Komnіnov was already becoming a great provincial landowner to know. The state of officials was shortened at the center and in the provinces. However, the Komnіni less than for a certain hour recognized the Byzantine state, but they did not dare to save the feudal stagnation.
Economy of Byzantium in the 11th century perebuvala pіdёmі, prote її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її її ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї ї soverzhnoї ї derzhannostі. The exit from the crisis was taken by the evolution of the other half of the 11th century. - the growth of the feudal landownership, the transformation of the main mass of the peasantry into feudal exploitation, the consolidation of the noble class. Ale, the peasant part of the military, the ruined strata, did not have a serious military force to inspire from the shock feudal pens and hiring, they became a tractor for the military divisions. The village part of the bula was a nenadial, which gave a vital role to the generals and the top of the army, opened the way for them to slaughter and revolt.
With Oleksiyom Komnіnim, it was not just the Komnіnov dynasty that came to power. Before the reign came a whole clan of military-aristocratic nicknames, already from the 11th century. bound by native and friendly ties. Komnіnіvskiy klan vіdtіsniv vіd governіnnya kraїnoy gromadyansku nobility. The importance and influx of the political share of the country was reduced, the management of the daedal was more prominent at the palace, at the courtyard. The role of the synclite as the head governing body has fallen. Rodovity becomes a distinct nobility.
The distribution of pronіy allowed not only to commemorate, to commemorate the panuvannya of the Komnіnovsky clan. Part of the Gromadyan nobility was satisfied with the pronnies. With the development of the institution of the pronіy power, in fact, the same day the feudal army was created. Nutrition, naskolki under Komnіny grew dribne and middle feudal landowning, є spirnim. It’s important to say why, but the order of the Komnіnov robbed a significant voice to lure foreigners to the Byzantine army, and send them out with a route of distribution. So, in Byzantium, a significant number of western feudal privileges appeared. to act like a kind of "third force", the bula was strangled.
Strengthening the panuvannya of their clan, Komnіni helped the feudal lords to ensure the peaceful exploitation of the villagers. Already the beginning of the rule of Oleksiy was marked by the zhorstok strangled folk-heretic revolutions. The most famous heretics and rebels were spat. The Church also intensified its struggle against heresies.
The feudal state of Byzantium is going through a decline. Moreover, at 12 tbsp. there was a remembrance of the privatnovlasnitsky forms of exploitation over centralization. The feudal state gave the Daedalus more marketable products (yield - sam-fifteen, sam-twenty). Obsyag commodity-penny vіdnosin zrіs at 12 tbsp. at 5 times at povnyanni from 11 tbsp.
In the great provincial centers, wineries developed, similar to those in Constantinople (Athens, Corinth, Nicaea, Smyrna, Ephesus), which even hit the capital's wineries. The provincial towns were in direct contact with the Italian merchants. Ale at 12 st. Byzantium is already exercising a monopoly of trade in the western, and in the lower parts of the Mediterranean.
Politics Komnіnov schodo іtalіyskih mist-states as a whole was in the interests of the clan. The trade and crafts population of Constantinople suffered the most. Power at 12 Art. took away some of the income from the harvest of mіskogo life. The Byzantine treasury did not care, disregarding the most active modern politics and the majestic military windows, as well as the windows on the morning of the picnic yard, the hospitality, consumed pennies for a significant part of the 12th century. Crimea organizing expensive expeditions, emperors of the 12th century. led a great Viyskove life, small reproach fleet.
Pidyom of the Byzantine places near the 12th st. appearing short and unfinished. Growth is less gnіt, scho kicking on the peasant state. The state, as it gave the feudal lords those other benefits and privileges that increased their power over the peasants, in fact, did not shy away from the total rapidity of sovereign requisitions. The tribute tіlos, which became the main sovereign tax, without vrakhovuvav іndivіdualny feasibility of the peasant state, mav trend to the unification of the tribute to the type of podvіrny chi pіdnіmnogo. The camp of the internal, local market in the other half of the 12th century. began to improve in connection with the decrease in the purchasing power of the villagers. This is why there was a lot of mass crafts at the stop.
The rest of the quarter of the 12th century was settled. pauperization and lumpen-proletarianization of a part of the Russian population was especially pronounced in Constantinople. Already at the same time, cheap Italian commodities of mass drink are being introduced to the yogo camp to Byzantium. All this led to the social situation in Constantinople, led to massive anti-Latin, anti-Italian protests. Provincial places also begin to show rice in the wake of their economic rainfall. Byzantine chernets actively multiplied like for the labor of the rural population, as well as the trade and handicraft. At Byzantine places 11–12 st. trade and craftsmen's associations did not form at the kshtalt of Western European workshops, craftsmen did not play an independent role in the life of the city.
It is unlikely that the terms “self-regulation” and “autonomy” can be brought to the Byzantine places, stinks of stench may be on the vase of administrative autonomy. The charters of the Byzantine emperors have places about tax and private judicial privileges, which in principle protect the interests of not all the city's community, but the other groups of the population. It is not clear that the trade and clerical population fought for "their" sovereign autonomy, okremo against the feudal lords, but the fact is overshadowed by the fact - those elements of the її, as they were seen in Byzantium, put on the choli of the feudal lords. At the same time, as in Italy, the feudal class was crushed and established the prosharoks of the feudal lords, who became an ally of the city dwellers, in Byzantium, the elements of the feudal lords were less able to consolidate the power of the feudal lords over the towns. Quite often, at the localities, the government changed 2–3 feudal nicknames at the hands. Yakshcho near Byzantium 11–12 st. if there were any tendencies to blame the elements of the mіsk (burgher) self-regulation, then in the other half - the beginning of the 12th century. the stench appeared interrupted - and forever.
Also, after the development of the Byzantine city in 11–12 centuries. in Byzantium, at the forefront of Western Europe, neither the mass of the masses of the city, nor the strained self-sufficient movement of the townspeople, nor the self-described mishko self-regulation and inculcation of the elements were formed. Byzantine craftsmen and merchants were taken to participate in the official political life and in the city government.
The fall of the power of Byzantium in the rest of the quarter of the 12th century. the destruction of the processes of the defeat of Byzantine feudalism. The struggle of tendencies of decentralization and centralization, the growth of which characterizes the evolution of political capitals in Byzantium of the 12th century, was inevitably illustrated by the formation of the local market. Rooms have become even more richly on the way to the development of a clever feudal landowner, not forgetting about their own family feudal power. The stench handed out taxes and court privileges to the feudal lords, and they themselves were given the most private exploitation of the peasants and the real fallowing of the feudal lords. However, the clan, which was under power, did not even need to be influenced by centralized income. To that, for the short-term collection of taxes, the sovereign tax yoke succumbed, which called out to the sharp discontent of the villagers. The comments did not support the trend towards the transformation of the pron on the mind, but the decline of the volodin, which was actively promoted by the greater part of the pronariars.
A tangle of protyric, which was used by Byzantium in the 70s–90s of the 12th century. well in what under the bag of tієї evolyutsії, yak recognized the Byzantine suspіlstvo that yogo panіvny class in tієmu stoіttі. The forces of the hromadian nobility were sufficiently undermined in the 11th-12th century, but they knew their support in people who were dissatisfied with the policy of the Komnіnov, who dominated and dominated the komnіnovskogo clan in the missions.
Zvіdsi vmogi to strengthen the central government, streamline the sovereign administration - whil, de priyshov to rule Andronicus I Komnіn (1183–1185). The masses of the Constantinople population were insured that the civilized, and not the military, order could effectively accommodate the privileges of the nobility and foreigners. Sympathy for the civil bureaucracy grew up and with the support of the aristocratic aristocracy of the Komnins, the singing world met themselves in the face of the noble class, their closeness to the zahadnoy aristocracy. The opposition to the Komnіnam knew more and more support, both in the capital and in the provinces, the situation was more complicated. At the social structures and warehouses of the panel class with a stretch of 12 tbsp. deyakі change. Yakshcho 11th c. the feudal aristocracy of the provinces of the bula is more importantly represented by the great wiyskowy privileges, the great early feudal nobility of the provinces, then by the stretch of the 12th century. strained provincial prosharok of the feudal lords of the “middle hand”. Vaughn was not tied up with the Komnin clan, took an active part in the Mishka self-righteousness, step by step tidied up power in the provinces, and the struggle for the weakened power order in the provinces became one of the most important tasks. Vaughn gurgled in her struggles for herself, and spiraled into place. Vaughn is not small military forces, but її znaryaddy became mіstsevі military commanders. Moreover, it is not about the old aristocratic ranks, like small majestic power and might, but about the quiet, who is only a moment away for their support. At Byzantium, the end of the 12th century. separatist outbursts became frequent, zvilnennya z-pіd central ї vlady tsilikh areas.
In this rank, we can talk about the endless expansion of the Byzantine feudal class in the 12th century. Yakshcho 11th c. in the university, many of the largest feudal magnates of the region fought for the central government and were inextricably linked with it, then with a stretch of 12 tbsp. viris the tight ball of the provincial feudal lords-archons, which became an important official of the just feudal decentralization.
Ruled after Andronik I, the emperor of the singing world, even though it was tempted, continued his policy. On the one hand, the stench weakened the strength of the Komnin clan, but they did not dare to strengthen the elements of centralization. The stench did not speak out the interests of the provincials, but the rest, with their help, called panuvannya of the comnіnіvskogo clan. The stench did not carry out any goal-directed policy against the Italians, they simply spiraled on the people's performances like a vice on them, and then went to actions. The result of the state did not have any decentralization or centralization of management. The mustache was dissatisfied, but did not know anyone what to work.
In the empire, there was a trend of equal forces; Zhodna zі storіn did not bother with reforms, but all fought for power. In minds, the authority of Constantinople fell, the provinces lived more and more independent lives. Navіt serioznі vіyskovі hits and vtrati did not change the situation. Although the Komnіni could, spiraling on the objective tendencies, work a roaring crack until the establishment of feudal vodnosin, the situation that developed in Byzantium until the end of the 12th century was internally unsettled. The empire has strength, as if it were to break sharply with the traditions of stable centralized statehood. The rest is not enough to give a support to the real life of the country, to the sovereign forms of exploitation. That was not quiet in Constantinople, who could fight boldly for the preservation of the empire.
The Komnіnovskaya epoch formed a stand of the military-bureaucratic elite, who looked at the country as a kind of “mayok” of Constantinople and did not call on the interests of the population. Її revenues were spent on food, everyday life and expensive overseas campaigns, at which the cordons of the country appeared to be weakly stolen. The rooms left a residual amount of the feminine military, the feminine organization. They created a military feudal army, gained great victories, eliminated the surpluses of the feminist fleets and created a military central fleet. Ale zahist areas daedalі more stale in the central forces. The rooms were safe at the Byzantine Vistula high vіdsotok of foreign faces, the stench so svіdomo gabbled at the transformation of the proy of the Spadkovian authority. The imperial gifts and awards were transformed by pronіariov to the privileged top of the army, but the camp of the main mass of the army was insufficiently secure and stable.
For the last time, the order had a chance to frequently reinvigorate the elements of the regional military organization, often subordinating the municipal strategists of the Gromadyansk administration. Around them, the nobles of the city began to gather with their own local interests, proniarii and archonti, as they tried to assert the right of power in their own volodinnya, the town of the population, as if they tried to protect their interests. Everything was sharply shaken up by the situation of the 11th century. Tim, scho for all the ruins, scho blamed on the missions, from the middle of the 12th century. there were strong tendencies towards feudal decentralization of the land, which took shape after the establishment of Byzantine feudalism, the processes of folding regional markets. The stench appeared at the appearance of independent chies of self-sufficient crevices of the empire, especially in the outskirts, as they guarded the defenders of local interests and were no longer nominally subordinate to the Constantinople order. So becoming Cyprus under the rule of Isaac Komnіn, the region of central Greece under the rule of Kamatir and Leva Sgur, Western Asia Minor. This is the process of step-by-step “removal” of the regions of Ponta-Trapezund, where the power of Gavriv-Taronitiv was massively changed, as if they united the feudal lords and trade and merchant stakes around themselves. The stench became the basis of the future Empire of Trebizond of the Great Communes (1204-1461), which turned from the slaughtered Christians of Constantinople into an independent power.
The growth of the isolation of the capital was rich in what was insured by the Christian bearers and the Venetians, as if they had a real opportunity to turn Constantinople into the center of their panuvannya near the Hidden Mediterranean. The reign of Andronika I showed that the possibility of consolidating the empire on a new basis was spent. Vіn having established his sovereignty for the support of the provinces, but not being true to their influence and spending її. Having opened the provinces of Constantinople, it became a fact that the proshovs, the provinces did not come to the aid of the capital, if in 1204 they overlaid the cross-bearers. The nobility of Constantinople, on the one hand, did not want to be separated from their monopoly camp, on the other hand, they strongly forgot about their own. Komnіnovska "centralization" gave the order the opportunity to maneuver in great ways, quickly increase the army and navy. Alecia change of needs created colossal opportunities for corruption. At the time of the oblog of the military forces of Constantinople, the forces of Constantinople were more important than the recruits and were insignificant. Їx it was impossible to mittevo zbіshiti. "Great Fleet" for the non-necessity of liquidations. Up to the cob, the oblogs by the Byzantine Christians could "fix 20 ships that were rotten, pierced by chrobaks." The unreasonable policy of the Constantinople order, ahead of the fall, paralyzed the formation of a trade and merchant stake. Zbіdnіla mass population hated arrogance and zarozumіlu know. Christ-bearers on April 13, 1204, fate without praci was seized by the city, and tormented by the impenetrable villains, they smashed together and plundered the palaces of the nobility's houses. The famous “Constantinople wasteland” began, after which the capital of the empire could no longer recognize. A “sacred bottle of Constantinople” was thrown at Zahid, but a larger part of the cultural decline of Byzantium appeared to be irrevocably wasted for an hour after an hour for a landfilled place. The fall of Constantinople and the collapse of Byzantium were a natural consequence of some more objective trends in development. Why is it rich and a direct result of the unreasonable policy of the Constantinople government.
Church
at Byzantium there was a bіdnіsha for zahіdna, the priests paid tribute. Celibacy in the empire buv іz 10 st. Obov'yazkovim for the clergy, commencing with the rank of a bishop. The clergy lay in the midst of the old age, like an emperor, and sounded audibly violating his will. Most of the hierarchs were drawn into the strife of the nobility. From the middle of 10 st. the stench began to pass more often to the bik viysk aristocracy.
At 11-12 st. The empire was truly the edge of the monasteries. To fall asleep and bestow on the monasteries, all the nobles jumped out. Navіt nezvjayuchi on zbіdnennya treasury and rіzke zmenshennya fund of sovereign lands until the end of the 12th century, the emperors even timidly and rarely went to the secularization of church lands. At 11-12 st. in the internal political life of the empire, the steps of the feudalization of nationalities began to act, as if they jumped out of the warehouse of Byzantium and appease the independent powers.
Otzhe, Byzantine feudal monarchy of the 11th–12th centuries. not entirely dependent on the social and economic structure. The crisis of the imperial power buv was residually repaired to the cob of the 13th century. At one time, the fall of the state was not the last time the fall of the Byzantine economy. The reason was believed to be that the social and economic development of that suspіlny development came from a non-disconnection with the old, traditional forms of state administration, which were more often attached to new minds.
Crisis of the end of the 12th century. having strengthened the process of decentralization of Byzantium, having taken the conquest. In the rest of the quarter of 12 st. Byzantium occupied the Ionian Islands, Cyprus, during the 4th Crusade campaign began systematically burying these territories. On April 13, 1204, the Christians sacked and plundered Constantinople. On the ruins of Byzantium in 1204 Vinicla is new, the power was created piece by piece, to the extent that the lands have grown, which stretched from the Ionian to the Black Sea, which lie down to the Western European faces. They were called Latin Romany, before it the Latin Empire with its capital in Constantinople and the powers of the “Franks” in the Balkans, the Volodinnia of the Venetian Republic, the colonies and factors of the Genoese, territories that belonged to the spiritual and lyrical order of the state hospital (the that islands Do2) Ale to the cross-bearers it was not far off to create a plan to bury all the lands that Byzantium lies in. jumped її vozdnannyu.
Cultural, modern and religious unity, historical traditions zoomed in on the manifestation of trends before the unification of Byzantium. The Nikean Empire played a leading role in the fight against the Latin Empire. Tse bula was one of the strongest Greek powers. Її rulers, spying on other and middle landowners in that place, zoomed in 1261 on the fate of the Latins from Constantinople. The Latin Empire pinned down its foundation, and yet the Byzantine Empire was no more than such a mighty power. Now it included the western part of Asia Minor, part of Thrace and Macedonia, islands in the Aegean Sea and a number of forts in the Peloponnese. Zovnishnopolitichnaya situation and the center of power, the weakness and the daily unity of the city made it easier to try to a farther union. The Palaeologian dynasty did not enter on the paths of a rich struggle against the great feudal lords, afraid of the activity of the people's masses, but the will of the dynastic clans, feudal wars against the victories of foreign naimantsiv. The old political camp of Byzantium appeared very twisted, from the side of Sunset they did not try to restore the Latin Empire and expand the power of the pope to Byzantium; the economic and military pressure on the side of Venice and Genoa has been strengthened. The attacks of the Serbs from the pivnіchny entry and the Turks from the outset became successful. The Byzantine emperors tried to take away the Viysk for help with the way of ordering the Greek church of the pope (Union of Lyons, the Union of Florence), protesting the influence of the Italian merchant capital and the western feudal lords, the people hated the people, but the people were not known .
At this hour, the panuvannya of the great secular and ecclesiastical feudal landowners was even more pronounced. Pronya re-emerges forms of the recessionary mindfulness, the feudal lords' privileges expand. Krim nadanogo taxable immunity, stench more and more often nabuvayut administrative and judicial immunity. The state, as before, initially spread the public-legal rent from the villagers, as it passed it on to the feudal lords. Її laying the foundation for a tribute from the house, from the land, from the team of thinness. Donations spread over the whole mass: tithes of thinness and flocks of flocks. The fallow villagers (peruks) also bore private and legal duties to the feudal lord's greed, and the stench was regulated not by the power, but by the rulers. Panshchina became on average 24 days on the river. At 14-15 Art. more and more often it turned into penny payments. Dzhe suttєvimi buli financial and natural collections for the greed of the feudal lord. The Byzantine community turned into an element of a patrimonial organization. In the marvelous country, the marketability of the agricultural state grew, while the sellers on the most famous markets were the secular feudal lords and monasteries, who took away great profits from the center of trade, and the main differentiation of the villagers was strengthened. The villagers more and more turned into landless and landless people, they became hired laborers, orendars of foreign land. The change of the patrimonial state has sown the development of handicraft manufacturing in the villages. Pіznyovіzantіysk place is not enough monopoly in the production and production of handicraft products.
For Byzantium 13-15 Art. buv is a characteristic growing gloom of mіskogo life. The Latin conquest has given an important blow to the economy of the Byzantine city. The competition of the Italians, the development of liquor in the localities led to the destruction of the wide range of Byzantine craftsmen, like the labors of the Mishko plebs. A significant part of the modern trade of the state was in the middle of the hands of the Genoese, Venetian, Pisan and other Western European merchants. Trade factors of foreigners were rebuked at the most important points of the empire (Fessalonitsy, Adrianopoly, mayzhe at all places of the Peloponnese, too). At 14-15 Art. the ships of the Genoese and Venetians were panning on the Black and the Aegean Seas, and if the mighty fleet of Byzantium fell into oblivion.
Especially memorable was the fall of mіskogo life near Constantinople, there the whole quarters were in desolation, but near Constantinople the economic life did not calm down, but for an hour it began to rumble. The most hospitable was the camp of the great port towns (Trapezund, which had the union of the feudal lords and trade and industrial leaders). The stench took a part in both international and international trade. Most of the middle and other places were transformed into the center of the mass exchange of goods of handicraft production. Voni, being the residences of the great feudal lords, were ecclesiastical and administrative centers.
At the beginning of the 14th century The greater part of Asia Minor was slaughtered by the Ottoman Turks. In 1320-1328, an international war broke out in Byzantium between the emperor Andronik II and yogi Andronik III, who stole the throne. The victory of Andronik III further strengthened the power of the feudal nobility and the center of power. At 20-30, 14 tbsp. Byzantium waged wars against Bulgaria and Serbia.
The 40th and 14th centuries appeared to be the critical period, if in the course of the struggle of two cliques for power, the peasant rush was ignited. Having stood on the side of the "legitimate" dynasty, having begun to smash the mothers of rebellious feudal lords, Ivan Kantakuzin was stunned. The order of John Apokavka and Patriarch John on the back, having carried out a rash policy, sharply speaking out as against the separatists of the established aristocracy (and going into the confiscation of the maєtkіv nepokirnyh), and against the mystical ideology and sychasts. The locals of Thessalonik supported Apokavka. Rukh was stunned by the party of zealots, the program of such nevdovz was of an anti-feudal character. But the activism of the masses spurred the Constantinople order, which, without daring to win a chance, which gave you the people's movement. Apokavk at 1343 p. number of murders, the struggle in a row against the rebellious feudal lords actually stumbled. At Thessaloniki, the camp became famous after the transition of the mіskoї nobility (archons) at the bіk Kantakuzin. The plebs, having acted, blaming the greater part of the Moscow nobility. However, the roc, having intervened in the connection with the central order, became local for its character and oppression.
Tsey the largest mіs'kyi rukh pіznої Byzantium bv the rest of the trade and craftsmen kіl stand against the dominance of the feudal lords. The weakness of the locality, the presence of a packed Russian patriciate, the social organization of craft workshops, and the tradition of self-rowing marked their defeat. In 1348-1352 Byzantium played a war with the Genoese. The Black Sea trade and the supply of bread from Constantinople were held in the hands of the Italians.
Byzantium was strong and could not resist the onslaught of the Turks, as they conquered Thrace. Now, the warehouse of Byzantium included Constantinople from the district, Thessaloniki and that part of Greece. The defeat of the Serbs in the Turks near Maritsa in 1371. in fact, she robbed the Byzantine emperor as a vassal of the Turkish sultan. Byzantine feudal lords went to compromise with foreign invaders in order to preserve their rights to exploit the local population. The Byzantine trade places, the zocrema of Constantinople, stormed their main enemy in the Italians, underestimating the Turkish insecurity, nurtured with the help of the Turks the indigence of the power of foreign trade capital. An important attempt by the population of Thessaloniki in 1383-1387 to fight against the Turkish panuvannya in the Balkans ended in failure. The Italian merchants also underestimated the real problem of the Turkish conquest. The defeat of the Turks by Timur under Ankara in 1402 added to Byzantium Timur's independence and independence, but the Byzantines and Pivdenno-Slovak feudals did not amaze the weakening of the Turks, and in 1453 p. Constantinople was buried by Mehmed II. Then other Greek territories fell (Morea - 1460, Trebizond - 1461). The Byzantine Empire pinned its foundation.
St. Petersburg, 1997
Kazhdan A.P. Byzantine culture. St. Petersburg, 1997
Vasiliev A. A. History of the Byzantine Empire. St. Petersburg, 1998
Karpov S.P. Latin Romania. St. Petersburg, 2000
Kuchma V.V. Viysk organization of the Byzantine Empire. St. Petersburg, 2001
Shukurov R. M. Great Rooms and Skhid(1204–1461
).
St. Petersburg, 2001
Skabalonovich N. A. Byzantine state and church in the IX century. Tt. 1–2. St. Petersburg, 2004
Sokolov I. I. Lectures on the history of the Greek-Skhidnoy Church. Tt. 1–2. SPb., 2005
One of the greatest sovereign altars of old, in the first centuries of our land fell into oblivion. Numerous tribes, which stand on the lower slabs of civilization, have richly occupied the lands of the ancient world. Ale the Eternal place was not destined to perish: the wines were born on the banks of the Bosporus and even more fates, destroying the fellows with their writings.
Another Rome
The history of the vindication of Byzantium dates back to the middle of the III century, if Flavius Valery Avreliy Kostyantin, Kostyantin I (the Great) became the Roman emperor. At that hour, the Roman state was tearing apart the internal inter-communities and trimal in the encirclement of the formidable entanglements. The camp of similar provinces was prosperous, and Kostyantin vyrishiv to transfer the capital to one of them. At 324 rivers on the birch of the Bosporus, the life of Constantinople began, and even at 330 wines, the new Rome was stunned.
This is how Byzantium laid its foundation, the history of which is eleven hundred years old.
I guessed, there was no mention of stable state cordonies at that hour. By stretching out her old life, the rulers of Constantinople either weakened or regained their power.
Justinian and Theodora
Rich in what the right camp of the country lay in the form of special features of the emperor, which in the whole of the powers with an absolute monarchy, such as Byzantium lay. The history of its formation is inextricably linked with the names of the Emperor Justinian I (527-565 pp.) and that druzhina, Empress Theodori, a woman who is more than ordinary, perhaps, superbly gifted.
At the beginning of the 5th century, the empire turned into a small power of the Mediterranean, and the new emperor was obsessed with the idea of reviving great glory: he conquered great territories on the Sunset, reached the rich world of Persia on the Descent.
History is inextricably tied to the reign of Justinian. The very zavdyaks of yoga turbotam today build such monuments of ancient architecture, like a mosque near Istanbul and the church of San Vitali near Ravenna. One of the most important achievements of the emperor of history is to respect the codification of Roman law, as it became the basis of the legal system of rich European powers.
Middle sounders
Budіvnitstvo and inexcusable wars vimagali majestic windows. The emperor inexcusably offered gifts. Dissatisfaction grew among the Suspіlstvі. At the beginning of the 532nd hour, the appearance of the emperor on the Ipodrome (a kind of analogue to the Colosseum, which accommodated 100 thousand osib) began to bewilderment, which grew into a large-scale riot. The insurgents were strangled in the distance by an incomprehensible zhorstokistyu: the rebels were killed by the brothers in the Ipodrome, nibi for negotiations, after which they closed the gates and killed them all to one.
Procopius of Caesarea tells about the death of 30 thousand people. It is noteworthy that Theodore’s squad saved the emperor’s crown, they themselves overcame Justinian, who was ready to enter, to continue the fight, saying, “Tsar’s power is a beautiful shroud.”
In 565 rotations, the empire included part of Syria, the Balkans, Italy, Greece, Palestine, Asia Minor and the shores of Africa. Ale, the inexorable wars appeared in the camp of the country unfriendly. After the death of Justinian, the cordon began to close again.
"Macedonian Revival"
867 year before the reign came Vasil I, the founder of the Macedonian dynasty, which woke up until 1054 year. Historians call this epoch “Macedonian renaissance” and respect it as the maximum rise of the worldly middle power, which Byzantium was at that hour.
The history of successful cultural and religious expansion of the Khidnoi Roman Empire is well known to all the powers of the Khidnoi Europe: one of the most characteristic features of the modern policy of Constantinople was missionary work. At the same time, as soon as the Byzantine spit on Skhid, that christianity expanded, as after 1054 it became Orthodox.
Cultural capital of the European world
The art of the Skhidnoy Roman Empire was closely connected with religion. It’s a pity that political and religious elites couldn’t make a home for a long time, worshiping the sacred images with idolatry (ruh having omitted the name of iconoclasm). The procession has a majestic number of statues, frescoes and mosaics were reduced.
Over the name of goiter, the empire's history, by stretching its own foundation, was a kind of treasure of ancient culture, and it adopted a wide range of old Greek literature in Italy. The deyakıs of the historians have been reconsidered, that the era of the Renaissance became possible for the New Rome.
In the era of the rule of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, it was possible to neutralize the two main enemies of the state: the Arabs at the gathering and the Bulgarians at the beer. The history of victory over the rest is already hostile. As a result of the rapt attack on the enemy, Emperor Vasil II was able to hoard 14,000 soldiers. Vіn punishing them to sleep, depriving them of one eye only of a hundredth of the skin, after which they let crippled people home. After pumping his blind with a war, the Bulgarian Tsar Samuil recognized the blow, for which he did not warn. The middle ones sounded true, they were more severe.
After the death of Vasil II, the remaining representative of the Macedonian dynasty, the history of the fall of Byzantium began.
Rehearsal of the movie
In 1204, Constantinople first succumbed under the onslaught of the enemy: they were separated by a short trip to the “land of habitation”, the cross-bearers evaded the place, voiced about the creation of the Latin Empire and divided the Byzantine lands between the French barons.
A new consecration of the unfortunate dawned: 51 limes 1261 Constantinople occupied without a fight Michael VIII Palaiologos, who voiced about the revival of the Skhidnoy Roman Empire. The dynasty was founded by him to rule Byzantium until the fall, but the reign was to endure the zhalyugid. Before the end, the emperors lived on handouts from Genoese and Venetian merchants, and naturally robbed churches and private volodnia.
Fall of Constantinople
Only Constantinople, Thessaloniki and small enclaves on the mainland of Greece were left on the cob in large territories. Baked samples of the remaining emperor of Byzantium, Manuil II, secured a military support, not a little success. May 29 Constantinople was suddenly conquered and resurrected.
The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II changed the place to Istanbul, and the main Christian temple of the place, the Cathedral of St. Sophia pretended to be a mosque. With the rise of the capitals, Byzantium also arose: the history of the most powerful power of the middle ranks was finally pinned down.
Byzantium, Constantinople and New Rome
Let’s face the fact that the name of the “Byzantine Empire” appeared already after the collapse: it was first mentioned by the late Ironim Wolff as early as 1557. The drive was the name of the place of Byzantium, at the place of such a prompting Constantinople. The Meshkants themselves called її not otherwise like the Roman Empire, but to themselves - the Romans (Romeans).
The cultural impact of Byzantium on the outskirts of Northern Europe is important to reevaluate. The first Russian scientist, who rose to the honor of the middle state, Yu. A. Kulakovsky. "History of Byzantium" in three volumes was seen only at the beginning of the 20th century, and slandered from 359 to 717 years. In the rest of the years of life, I was preparing until the fourth quarter of my creation, but after his death in 1919, the manuscript was not known so far.
Byzantium is a marvelous middle power at the first meeting of Europe. A place of its own, a relay stick between antiquity and feudalism. All this thousands of reasons are uninterruptedly low wars of the gromadians and z zvnishnimi foes, rebellions of blacks, religious chvars, serpents, intrigues, sovereign coups, which the nobles see through. Either rising to the pinnacle of power, or throwing themselves off at the edge of disintegration, disintegration, worthlessness, Byzantium conceived to save 10 hundred years for itself, being a butt for co-participants in the sovereign system, organization of the army, trade, diplomatic art. That and today's chronicle of Byzantium is a book, how to read it like a trace and not a trace of cherubation, country, light, demonstrating the importance of the role of specialness in history, showing the sinfulness of human nature. Under what circumstances do historians compare, what was the Byzantine suspense - ancient, early feudal and middle *.I would call the new state of the new state the "Kingdom of the Romans", the Latin Sunset of yoga was called "Romania", and the Turks for a year began to call it the "power of the rums" or simply "Rum". Historians began to name the state "Byzantium" or "Byzantine Empire" after their fall
History of Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium
Approximately 660 roci to ours on the river, which is washed by the waters of the Bosporus, the Black Sea whirlwinds of the Golden River Bay and the Marmur Sea, overlooking the Greek town of Megar, fell asleep a trading outpost on the route from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea, names in honor of the team of the columnist. The new place was called Byzantium.
Having awakened Byzantium for about seven hundred rocks, serving as a transit point on the way of merchants and seafarers, they went straight from Greece to the Greek colonies of the Black Sea and Crimea back. Merchants brought wine and olive oil, fabrics, ceramics, and other types of craftsmen from the metropolis, back - bread and hutro, ship's and building wood, honey, whisk, riba and thinness. The place grew, richly, and that was constantly known under the threat of a prophetic invasion. More than once, yoga Meshkans beat the onslaught of barbarian tribes from Thrace, Persians, Spartans, Macedonians. Only in the years 196-198 our place fell under the onslaught of the legions of the Roman emperor Septimius Pivnochi and it was destroyed
Byzantium is not the only power in history, as we can accurately date the people and death: May 11, 330 - April 29, 1453
History of Byzantium. Short
- 324, 8 leaf fall - the Roman emperor Kostyantyn the Great (306-337) fell asleep on the ancient Byzantium, the new capital of the Roman Empire. Why such a decision was viklikano, it was unbelievable. Possibly, Kostyantin, having started to create the center of the empire, far away from Rome with uninterrupted strife, struggle for the imperial throne.
- 330, 11 May - Urochist ceremony proclaiming Constantinople the new capital of the Roman Empire
The ceremony was accompanied by Christian and pagan religious rites. On the riddle about the filling of the city, Kostyantin ordered to win a coin. On one її botsі buv images the emperor himself at sholomі and with a list from rutsi. Immediately Buv wrote - "Constantinople". From the other side - a woman with colossi with a horn of prosperity in her hands. The emperor gave Constantinople the municipal government of Rome. A new senate was founded at the new one, Egyptian bread, like Rome was fed earlier, becoming the direct consumer of the population of Constantinople. Similar to Rome, awakened on seven hillocks, Constantinople spread out on the great territory of the seven hillocks of the Bosphorus. At the rock of Tsar Kostyantin, there were about 30 miraculous palaces and temples, over 4 thousand. great budіvel, in which the nobility lived, a circus, 2 theaters and a subdrome, over 150 lazen, about the same number of bakeries, as well as 8 plumbing
- 378 - the battle of Adrianople, in which the Romans were defeated by the army of ready
- 379 Roman emperor became Theodosius (379-395). Vіn stole the world from the Goths, but the camp of the Roman Empire was German
- 394 - Theodosius voted Christianity as the single religion of the empire and divided it among the synamis. Zahidnu vіddav Honoria, Skhidna - Arcadia.
- 395 - Constantinople, having become the capital of the Skhidnoy Roman Empire, turned into the power of Byzantium.
- 408 - Theodosius II became the Emperor of the Skhidnoi Roman Empire, on the eve of the reign of which the city of Constantinople was founded, the walls were announced, which marked those boundaries, in which Constantinople was founded richly.
- 410, 24 sickles - the Visigoth King Alarikh was slaughtered and plundered Rome
- 476 - fall of the Western Roman Empire. The leader of the Germans, Odoacer, overthrew the remaining emperor of the Western Empire, Romulus.
The first century of the history of Byzantium. Iconoclasm
Half of the Roman Empire went to the warehouse of Byzantium along the line that passed through the western part of the Balkans to Cyrenaica. It was planted on three continents - in Europe, Asia and Africa - it occupied an area of up to 1 million square meters. km, including the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, parts of Mesopotamia and Hungary, islands, near Crete and Cyprus, the main volodinnya in Krim (Chersonese), in the Caucasus (in Georgia), the deyaks of the Arabian region, the islands of Skhidny Mediterranean. The borders were drawn from the Danube to the Euphrates. The territory of the empire was heavily populated. There are 30-35 million people who won't be able to get away with some crazy pranks. The main part was the Greeks and the Hellenistic population. Surrounding the Greeks near Byzantium lived Syrians, Copts, Thracians and Illyrians, Virmenians, Georgians, Arabs, Jews
- V century, the end - the VI century, the cob - the naive point of the early Byzantium. On a similar cordon panuvav light. From the Balkan Pivostrov, the Ostrogoths (488) were seen far away, giving them Italy. The reign of Emperor Anastasius (491-518) had a small amount of wealth accumulated in the treasury.
- VI-VII centuries - Postupov zvіlnennya vіd latі. Greek language has become not only my church and literature, but also sovereign government.
- 527, 1st September - Emperor of Byzantium became Justinian I. During the new era, the Code of Justinian was broken up - the laws that regulated all aspects of the life of the Byzantine society, the temple of St. there was a rebellion of the Constantinople black, which went down in history under the name of "Nika"
The 38th reign of Justinian was the culminating period of the early Zantine history. Yogo diyalnіst played a role in consolidating the Byzantine suspіlstvo, the great successes of the Byzantine zbroї, which the two widows pushed between the empires to the borders, which even did not reach far. With this policy, the authority of the Byzantine state was stigmatized, and the glory of the glorious capital - Constantinople and the emperor, who ruled with it, began to spread among the peoples. The clarity of the Tsoogo “Zloto” is the specialty of Justinian himself: the Kolosalnes, Rosum, the Organized Crime Talent, the Zvozvichayn Prazdnosty (“Imperor, the Yaki Nikoli is not to sleep”) vmіv pіd vіd vіd vіd zvnіshnі sіvnіshnії impartiality і calmly prihovuvat і ї ї ї dumki pochutya
- 513 - young and energetic Khosrov I Anushirvan came to power in Iran.
- 540-561 - the cob of a large-scale war of Byzantium from Iran, in the same Iran, on a mere cross in Transcaucasia and Pivdenny Arabia - links of Byzantium from the borders
- 561 - peace agreement between Byzantium and Iran. Buv reach for Byzantium, but having flooded Byzantium with roses and devastation when the richest similar provinces
- VI century - the invasion of guns and words on the Balkan territories of Byzantium. The defense was spiraling on a system of cordon forts. In the wake of the uninterrupted invasions, the Balkan provinces of Byzantium were also eroded.
To ensure the continuation of military duties, Justinian had the opportunity to increase the tributary burden, introduce new supervichy requisitions, in-kind duties, flatten his eyes on the increasing recklessness of officials, but the stench ensured safe access to the treasury, happened to be burnt out y viyskove, and y sharply fast. army. If Justinian died, another contemporary wrote: (Justinian died) “because he reminded me of the whole world of remembrance and turmoil”
- VII century, cob - In the rich regions of the empire, rebellions of slaves and rosary villagers were fired. The bandits rebelled near Constantinople
- 602 - the rebels called to the throne one of their own commanders - Foku. The slave nobility, the aristocracy, and the great landowners opposed the new one. A civil war began, as it brought to the demise of a large part of the old landed aristocracy, the economic and political positions of the social prosharka sharply weakened
- 610, 3 July - the troops of the new emperor Iraclius reached Constantinople. The focus was off. Gromadyanskaya war ended
- 626 - war with the Avar Khaganate, before the ice ended in the looting of Constantinople
- 628 - victory of Iraclius over Iran
- 610-649 - the coming of the Arab tribes of Pivnichnoy Arabia. At the hands of the Arabs, the whole Byzantine Pivnichna Africa stooped
- VII century, the other half - the Arabs smashed the seaside cities of Byzantium, repeatedly tried to capture Constantinople. Before them passed panuvannya to the sea
- 681 - the establishment of the First Bulgarian Kingdom, which for a century became the main enemy of Byzantium in the Balkans
- VII century, ending - VIII century, on the cob - a period of political anarchy in Byzantium, viklikana struggle for the imperial throne between the groupings of feudal nobility. After being knocked down from the throne in the 695th century of Emperor Justinian II, six emperors changed on the throne in more than two decades
- 717 - Leo III Іsaur, having occupied the throne, was the founder of the new Іsavrian (Syrian) dynasty, who ruled Byzantium for the second century
- 718 - Not far from the sample of the Arabs came to Constantinople. The turning point in the history of the country is the beginning of the people of the middle Byzantium.
- 726-843 - a religious super-girl in Byzantium. Struggle between iconoclasts and iconodules
Byzantium for the victory of feudalism
- VIII century - in Byzantium the number and value of the city changed, the majority of seaside towns turned into small ports and villages, the town of the population grew, prote became more and more expensive, became more expensive and became a shortage of metal resources, the growth of trade natural exchange. All the signs of the formation of Byzantine feudalism
- 821-823 - the first anti-feudal rebellion of the peasants under the cerebration of Khomi Slovyanin. The people were dissatisfied with increasing gifts. The insurrection had a bad temper. The army of Homi the Slovyanin did not invade Constantinople. Less than bribed some deacons of Fomi and otrimavshi podrimku Bulgarian Khan Omortag, Emperor Mikhailo II zoomed in to defeat the rebels
- 867 - Basil I became the emperor of Byzantium, the first emperor of the new dynasty - Macedonian
Vaughn ruled Byzantium from 867 to 1056, which became the era of rozkvit for Byzantium. Cordoni її rozsunulis mayzha between early Byzantium (1 million sq. Km). Antioch and Pivnichna Syria lay anew, the army stood on the Euphrates, the fleet - on the coast of Sicily, protecting Pivdenna Italy from samples of Arab invasions. Vlad Byzantium was recognized by Dalmatia and Serbia, and in Transcaucasia, there were a lot of rulers of Armenia and Georgia. Trivala struggle for Bulgaria ended with the transformation of її 1018 to the Byzantine province. The population of Byzantium reached 20-24 million people, of which 10% were city dwellers. There were about 400 people, with a population of 1-2 thousand to tens of thousands. The most famous buv Constantinople
Miraculous palaces and temples, faceless flourishing trade and crafts mortgages, a viruchy port, besides the moorings stood impersonal ships, rich, stringy robes of NATO townspeople. The streets of the capital were teeming with people. Most of the huts were growing near the central part of the city, in the ranks of Artopolionu, bakeries and bakeries, as well as shops, were selling vegetables and fish, cheese and various hot appetizers. A commoner sings while eating vegetables, fish and fruits. Wine, shortbreads and riba were sold at unidentified taverns and taverns. Qi lay the boules for the Constantinople bіdnyakіv clubs of their own kind.
Commoners huddled around high and narrow booths, de bule dozens of crimny apartments or cubbyholes. Ale tse living was costly and richly inaccessible. Zabudov's living quarters were conducted even more desolately. Budinki literally piled up one on one, which was one of the reasons for the majestic ruins under the hour of earthquakes, as they often stood here. Crooked and arched narrow little streets were neimovirno brudni, littered with abandoned ones. High budinki did not miss the day light. At night, the streets of Constantinople practically did not hang out. I wanted to end the night wart, the city was dominated by the number of robbers. The mustache of the city gates was repaired for nothing, and people, who did not manage to get through until today's closing, had to spend the night just in the sky.
An invisible part of the picture was the place of the boulevards of the zhebrakiv, which were hovering around the towering proud columns and pedestals of beautiful statues. The Constantinople zhebraki were their own corporation. Your daily income is small, not a skin working person
- 907, 911, 940 - first contacts and agreements between the emperors of Byzantium and the princes of Kievan Rus Oleg, Igor, Princess Olga: Russian merchants were given the right to free trade in the Volodinians of Byzantium, they could not live without food in Constantine and on the return way. Igor, having taken upon himself the goiter to protect the Byzantine people from Krim, and the emperor, having given a tax, to slap at times, he needed the help of the prince of Kiev.
- 976 - imperial throne occupied by Vasil II
The reign of Vasil the Other, endowed with over-the-top arrogance, merciless courage, administrative and military talent, was the pinnacle of Byzantine sovereignty. 16 thousand blinded by the order of the Bulgarians, they brought him the prize “Bulgarian” - a demonstration of courage to mercilessly deal with any opposition. Victory successes of Byzantium for Vasil were the remaining great successes
- XI century - the international camp of Byzantium fell. From the first nights of the Byzantines, the pechenigs began to press, and from the same time - the Seljuk Turks. In the 60s of the XI century. The Byzantine emperors once again fought against the Seljuks, but their onslaught did not go far. Until the end of the XI century. under the rule of the Seljuks, all Byzantine volodinnia of Asia Minor fell down. The Normans entrenched in Pivnichniy Greece and in the Peloponnese. In the midst of the nights of the walls of Constantinople, the winds of the liver invaded. The inter-empires hurried unhappily, and the kіltse near the її capitals gradually squeezed.
- 1054 - the Christian church was divided into zahidna (Catholic) and skhidna (Orthodox). tse bula most important for the share of Byzantium
- 1081, 4 April - On the Byzantine throne Oleksiy Komnin - the first emperor of the new dynasty. Yogo naschadki Ivan II and Mayuil I were praised by military valor and respect for sovereign rights. The dynasty could turn the empire for ever and ever, and the capitals - glare and splendor
The state of Byzantium recognized the change. At the XII century. it became more and more feudal and gave more and more commercial products, expanded its exports to Italy, de-growing places, yak demanded grain, wine, olives, vegetables and fruits. Obsyag commodity-penny vіdnosin zrіs in the XII century. 5 times in porivnyanni from IX st. Order of Komnіnov weakening the monopoly of Constantinople. At the great provincial centers developed virobnitstva similar to those of Constantinople (Athens, Corinth, Nicaea, Smyrna, Ephesus). It was given privileges to the Italian merchants, which in the first half of the 12th century stimulated the growth of trade and trade, the crafts of wealthy provincial centers.
The death of Byzantium
- 1096, 1147 - the faces of the first and other crusades marched to Constantinople. The emperors, with great difficulties, bought themselves into them.
- 1182, early morning - Constantinople mob ruled the Latin pogrom.
The townsmen fired and plundered the houses of the Venetians and Genoese, as if they became competitors to the merchants, they drove them in, without deciphering the vіku, nі statі. If a part of the Italians tried to hide on their ships, which were in the harbor, they were overcome by "Greek fire". The rich Latins were the living bait of the bedroom at their booths. Rich and prosperous quarters were turned into ruins. The Byzantines smashed the churches of the Latins; Bulo hammered in and a lot of spiritual osіb, including the papal legate. Those Italians, like they overtook Constantinople to the brink of ruin, began to take revenge on the ruins of Byzantine places and settlements on the banks of the Bosphorus and on the Princes' Islands. The stench began to call out the Latin Zahid to the payment everywhere.
Usі tsі podії even more potentiated the fortune-teller between Byzantium and the powers of Western Europe.
- 1187 - Byzantium and Venice formed an alliance. Byzantium gave Venice all the many privileges and a new succumbing immunity. Relying on the fleet of Venice, Byzantium’s own fleet zvela to a minimum
- 1204, 13 April - Constantinople was stormed by the participants of the fourth cross campaign.
The city knew the pogrom. They completed this work later, which they did until autumn. Later, rich merchants and craftsmen's quarters were found, and for the most part they ruined the merchants and craftsmen of Constantinople. After this terrible downfall, the trade and craft corporations have spent a lot of value, and Constantinople has spent its vinyatkovy place in light trade for a long time. A lot of memoirs of architecture and prominent vitvorivs of art have perished.
Treasures of the temples laid the greater part of the vidobutka of the cross-bearers. The Venetians brought from Constantinople a lot of valuable memoirs of mysticism. The richness of the Byzantine cathedrals after the era of the cross campaigns could be found only in the churches of Venice. Collections of the most important handwritten books - the middle of the Byzantine science and culture - were squandered to the hands of vandals, they ruled the bivouac of riches and suvoivs. The fires were flying the creations of old philosophies and learned, religious books.
Catastrophe 1204 p. sharply mocked the development of Byzantine culture
The conquest of Constantinople by the Christians marked the collapse of the Byzantine Empire. On її streets viniklo kіlka powers.
—
The Christ-bearers created the Latin Empire with its capital at Constantinople. Prior to this warehouse included lands on the shores of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, part of Thrace and a number of islands in the Aegean Sea.
—
Venice was far away from the front of Constantinople and the sprat on the coast of the Marmur Sea
—
the head of the Fourth Crusade, Bonifacius of Montferrat, becoming the head of the kingdom of Thessaloniki, created on the territory of Macedonia and Thessaly
—
At the Sea viniklo Moreysk princedom
—
The Empire of Trebizond settled down on the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor
—
At the entrance of the Balkan Pivostrov, the epirsky despotate vineyard.
—
In the peninsular-western part of Asia Minor, the Nikean Empire was established - the strongest among the new powers
- 1261, 25 April - the army of the emperor of the Nikean Empire, Michael VIII Palaiologos, sacked Constantinople. The Latin Empire ceased to exist, and the Byzantine Empire was renewed. Ale, the territory of the state scurried away at the kіlka times. There was only a part of Thrace and Macedonia, a small part of the islands of the Archipelago, surrounding areas of the Peloponnesian Pivostrov, and a part of Asia Minor. Byzantium did not turn its back on that trading power.
- 1274 - Bazhayuchi zmіtsnit power Mikhailo pіdtrimav і idea ії s roman church, shchob, spryyuchisya papi, to establish an alliance with the Latin Sunset. Tse called the split at the Byzantine Suspіlstvo
- XIV century - the Byzantine Empire relentlessly went to ruin. Її shook the international strife, she recognized the blows after the blows at the wars from the outer enemies. Imperial door loading at intrigues. Speaking about the setting of the sun, he said to inspire the serene look of Constantinople “it was thrown into the eyes of everyone that the imperial palaces and the nobles’ chambers lay in ruins and served as exits for those who walk and sewers; and great bud_vl_ patriarchy, weaned the great church of St. Sofії… buli zruynovanі chi zovsі vyshchenі”
- XIII century, end - XIV century, on the cob - the power of the Ottoman Turks is strong in the peninsula-western part of Asia Minor
- XIV century, end - XV century, the first half - the Turkish sultans from the Ottoman dynasty reproached themselves with Asia Minor, burying all the Volodinnia of the Byzantine Empire on the Balkan Pivostrov. The power of the Byzantine emperors at that time was expanding only in Constantinople and insignificant territories for a few years. The Emperors of Zmusheni would recognize themselves as vassals of the Turkish sultans
- 1452, autumn - the Turks occupied the remaining Byzantine places - Mesimvriyu, Anikhal, Viza, Silivria
- 1453, birch - Constantinople of the birth of the majestic Turkish army of Sultan Mehmed
- 1453. 28 May - as a result of the storming of the Turks, Constantinople fell. History of Byzantium ended
Dynasties of Byzantine emperors
- Dynasty Kostyantyn (306-364)
- Dynasty Valentinian-Theodosius (364-457)
- Dynasty Lviv (457-518)
- Dynasty of Justinian (518-602)
- Dynasty of Heracles (610-717)
- Dynasty Isaurian (717-802)
- Dynasty of Nicephorus (802-820)
- Frigian dynasty (820-866)
- Macedonian dynasty (866-1059)
- Duk dynasty (1059-1081)
- Dynasty komnіv (1081-1185)
- Dynasty of Angels (1185-1204)
- Dynasty Palaiologiv (1259-1453)
Main Viysk Superniks of Byzantium
- Barvari: Vandals, Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Avars, Lombards
- Iranian kingdom
- Bulgarian kingdom
- Ugrian kingdom
- Arab caliphate
- Kievan Rus
- Pechenigy
- Seljuk Turks
- Ottoman Turks
What does walnut fire mean?
Vinahid of the Constantinopolitan architect Kalinnik (end of the 7th century) - fuse sumish from resin, sulfur, saltpeter, combustible olives. There was fire from special copper pipes. Putting out yoga bulo is impossible
*vikoristani books
Y. Petrosyan "Old place on the banks of the Bosphorus"
G. Kurbatov "History of Byzantium"
